From dba7b86210248f8e0d4f1cca5644c8bf8fcf0b60 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 1 Jul 2026 03:47:25 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 01/27] [feature] Add Django admin workflow for mass command
 execution and real-time monitoring #1345

- Custom admin change form with filtered/paginated commands table
- Merged skipped device rows into main commands table
- Colored status using CSS variables
- Real-time polling for in-progress batches
- Custom CSS and JS for batch command admin

Fixes #1345
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 210 +++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 144 ++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  43 ++++
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            | 174 +++++++++++++++
 5 files changed, 570 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index f15c98d58..60d853b7c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,17 +1,20 @@
+import json
 from datetime import timedelta
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin
+from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
-from django.utils.html import format_html
+from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
+from django.utils.safestring import mark_safe
 from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
 
 from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantOrgFilter
-from openwisp_utils.admin import TimeReadonlyAdminMixin
+from openwisp_utils.admin import ReadOnlyAdmin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
@@ -21,6 +24,7 @@
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class CredentialsForm(forms.ModelForm):
@@ -215,3 +219,205 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
     CommandInline,
 ]
 DeviceAdmin.add_reversion_following(follow=["deviceconnection_set"])
+
+
+class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
+    ordering = ("-created",)
+    list_display = [
+        "id",
+        "organization_display",
+        "status",
+        "type",
+        "created",
+        "total_devices",
+    ]
+    list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
+    list_select_related = ("organization",)
+    search_fields = ["id"]
+    change_form_template = (
+        "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
+    )
+    device_commands_per_page = 20
+    exclude = ("devices",)
+    fields = [
+        "organization_display",
+        "total_devices",
+        "colored_status",
+        "type",
+        "formatted_input",
+        "group",
+        "location",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
+        "created",
+        "modified",
+    ]
+
+    class Media:
+        css = {
+            "all": [
+                "admin/css/changelists.css",
+                "admin/css/ow-filters.css",
+                "connection/css/batch-command.css",
+            ]
+        }
+        js = [
+            "admin/js/ow-filter.js",
+            "connection/js/batch-command.js",
+        ]
+
+    def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
+        return self.fields or []
+
+    def organization_display(self, obj):
+        if obj.organization:
+            return obj.organization.name
+        return _("All")
+
+    organization_display.short_description = _("organization")
+    organization_display.admin_order_field = "organization"
+
+    def colored_status(self, obj):
+        css_class = f"command-status {obj.status}"
+        return format_html(
+            '<span class="{0}">{1}</span>',
+            css_class,
+            obj.get_status_display(),
+        )
+
+    colored_status.short_description = _("status")
+
+    def formatted_input(self, obj):
+        if not obj.input:
+            return "-"
+        return obj.input.get("command", obj.input)
+
+    formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
+
+    def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
+        if not obj.skipped_devices:
+            return "-"
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
+        lines = [str(count)]
+        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+            device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+            name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+            lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
+        return format_html(
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
+            format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
+        )
+
+    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
+
+    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, current_status):
+        filter_specs = []
+        params = request.GET.copy()
+
+        def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
+            q = params.copy()
+            q.pop(param_name, None)
+            if value:
+                q[param_name] = value
+            qs = q.urlencode()
+            query_string = f"?{qs}" if qs else ""
+            return {
+                "display": display,
+                "selected": current_value == value,
+                "query_string": query_string,
+            }
+
+        status_choices = []
+        for status_value, display_name in (
+            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("Skipped")),)
+        ):
+            status_choices.append(
+                _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
+            )
+
+        class StatusFilter:
+            title = _("status")
+            choices = status_choices
+
+        filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+        return filter_specs
+
+    def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
+        per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
+        paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
+        page_number = page_param or 1
+        try:
+            page_obj = paginator.page(page_number)
+        except (PageNotAnInteger, EmptyPage):
+            page_obj = paginator.page(1)
+        return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
+
+    def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
+        extra_context = extra_context or {}
+        obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
+        if obj:
+            Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+            commands_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related(
+                "device"
+            )
+            search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
+            if search_query:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
+            current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
+            if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
+            rows = []
+            for cmd in commands_qs:
+                rows.append(
+                    {
+                        "device_name": cmd.device.name,
+                        "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
+                        "status": cmd.status,
+                        "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
+                        "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
+                        "created": cmd.created,
+                        "is_skipped": False,
+                    }
+                )
+            if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
+                for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+                    device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+                    name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+                    if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
+                        continue
+                    rows.append(
+                        {
+                            "device_name": name,
+                            "device_pk": pk_str,
+                            "status": "skipped",
+                            "status_display": _("Skipped"),
+                            "output": ", ".join(errors),
+                            "created": None,
+                            "is_skipped": True,
+                        }
+                    )
+
+            def _sort_key(row):
+                priority = {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}
+                return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
+
+            rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, current_status)
+            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
+                rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
+            )
+            extra_context.update(
+                {
+                    "commands": commands,
+                    "page_obj": page_obj,
+                    "paginator": paginator,
+                    "filter_specs": filter_specs,
+                    "has_active_filters": any(
+                        request.GET.get(param) for param in ["status"]
+                    ),
+                }
+            )
+        return super().change_view(request, object_id, extra_context=extra_context)
+
+
+admin.site.register(BatchCommand, BatchCommandAdmin)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index dee7b5105..43f1adb01 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -801,7 +801,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     @cached_property
     def total_devices(self):
-        return self.batch_commands.count()
+        return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
     @property
     def successful(self):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..cff9510f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+#batchcommand_form .submit-row {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+.commands-title {
+  font-size: 22px;
+  font-weight: 300;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.search-section {
+  padding: 20px;
+}
+
+.search-form {
+  display: flex;
+  align-items: center;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-icon {
+  width: 20px;
+  height: 20px;
+  margin-right: 15px;
+  font-size: 16px;
+  margin-top: -3px;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-input {
+  padding: 10px 15px;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-button {
+  padding: 10px 20px;
+  margin-left: 15px;
+}
+
+.filter-clear-link:hover {
+  color: var(--ow-color-fg-darker);
+}
+
+.results-table {
+  width: 100%;
+  border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+#main #content .device-link {
+  color: var(--ow-color-primary);
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.device-name-disabled {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.empty-results {
+  padding: 40px;
+  text-align: center;
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.pagination {
+  padding: 15px 20px;
+  text-align: right;
+  border-top: 2px solid var(--hairline-color);
+  background: var(--darkened-bg);
+}
+
+.pagination a {
+  color: var(--body-fg);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  margin: 0 5px;
+}
+
+.pagination .current-page {
+  margin: 0 10px;
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+}
+
+.paginator {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  padding: 10px 20px;
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--hairline-color);
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.command-status {
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.command-status.success {
+  color: var(--ow-color-success);
+}
+
+.command-status.failed {
+  color: var(--error-fg);
+}
+
+.command-status.in-progress {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+}
+
+.command-status.skipped {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  opacity: 0.7;
+}
+
+.command-output {
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.command-output pre {
+  white-space: pre-wrap;
+  word-wrap: break-word;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+  font: inherit;
+  color: inherit;
+  background: transparent;
+}
+
+.skipped-devices-list {
+  line-height: 1.7;
+}
+
+.field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* Adjustments for list filters */
+#main #content .left-arrow {
+  left: -1.125rem;
+}
+#main #content .right-arrow {
+  right: -1.125rem;
+}
+#main #content #ow-changelist-filter {
+  padding: 1.25rem 0rem;
+}
+#main #content .filters-top {
+  margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b066770aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+(function () {
+  "use strict";
+
+  var pollInterval = 3000;
+  var pollTimer = null;
+
+  function getBatchStatus() {
+    var statusEl = document.querySelector(".field-status .readonly");
+    if (!statusEl) return null;
+    var text = statusEl.textContent.trim().toLowerCase();
+    if (text.indexOf("in progress") !== -1) return "in-progress";
+    if (text.indexOf("success") !== -1) return "success";
+    if (text.indexOf("failed") !== -1) return "failed";
+    if (text.indexOf("idle") !== -1) return "idle";
+    return null;
+  }
+
+  function shouldPoll() {
+    var status = getBatchStatus();
+    return status === "in-progress" || status === "idle";
+  }
+
+  function reloadPage() {
+    window.location.reload();
+  }
+
+  function startPolling() {
+    stopPolling();
+    if (!shouldPoll()) return;
+    pollTimer = setInterval(reloadPage, pollInterval);
+  }
+
+  function stopPolling() {
+    if (pollTimer) {
+      clearInterval(pollTimer);
+      pollTimer = null;
+    }
+  }
+
+  document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function () {
+    startPolling();
+  });
+})();
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..81d0e812d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -0,0 +1,174 @@
+{% extends "admin/change_form.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static admin_list ow_tags %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/changelists.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/ow-filters.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+{{ block.super }}
+
+<!-- Commands Section -->
+<h1 class="commands-title">{% trans "Commands" %}</h1>
+
+<!-- OpenWISP Filter Section -->
+{% if filter_specs %}
+<div id="ow-changelist-filter">
+  <div class="filters-bottom">
+    <span class="left-arrow">
+      <img src="{% static "ui/openwisp/images/left-arrow.svg" %}" alt="{% trans 'left' %}">
+    </span>
+    <span class="right-arrow">
+      <img src="{% static "ui/openwisp/images/right-arrow.svg" %}" alt="{% trans 'right' %}">
+    </span>
+    <div aria-label="{% trans 'changelist filters region' %}" tabindex="0" class="ow-filter-slider">
+      <div class="slider">
+        {% for spec in filter_specs %}
+        <div class="ow-filter {{ spec.title|join_string }}">
+          {% for choice in spec.choices %}
+          {% if choice.selected %}
+          <div id="{{ spec.title|join_string }}" aria-label="{% trans 'by' %} {{ spec.title }}" tabindex="0"
+            aria-controls="choices-{{ spec.title|join_string }}" role="button" aria-expanded="false"
+            class="filter-title">
+            <h3>
+              {% blocktrans with filter_title=spec.title %} By {{ filter_title }} {% endblocktrans %}
+            </h3>
+            <div class="selected-option" tabindex="0" title="{{ choice.display }}">
+              {{ choice.display }}
+            </div>
+          </div>
+          {% endif %}
+          {% endfor %}
+          <div id="choices-{{ spec.title|join_string }}" role="region" aria-labelledby="{{ spec.title|join_string }}"
+            class="filter-options">
+            <ul>
+              {% for choice in spec.choices %}
+              <li>
+                <a {% if choice.selected %} class="selected" {% endif %}
+                  title="{{ choice.display | default_if_none:'------'}}" href="{{ choice.query_string|iriencode }}">
+                  {{ choice.display | default_if_none:'------' }}
+                </a>
+              </li>
+              {% endfor %}
+            </ul>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+        {% endfor %}
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="filters-top">
+    <h2>{% trans 'Filter' %}</h2>
+    <div class="filters-control">
+      {% if has_active_filters %}
+      <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
+        <a href="?{% if request.GET.q %}q={{ request.GET.q|urlencode }}{% endif %}" class="filter-clear-link">&#10006; {% trans "Clear all filters" %}</a>
+      </h3>
+      {% endif %}
+      {% if filter_specs|length > 4 %}
+      <button id="ow-apply-filter" class="danger-btn">{% trans "Apply Filters" %}</button>
+      {% endif %}
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+{% endif %}
+
+<!-- Search Bar -->
+<div class="search-section">
+  <form method="get" class="search-form">
+    <svg class="search-icon" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2">
+      <circle cx="11" cy="11" r="8"></circle>
+      <path d="m21 21-4.35-4.35"></path>
+    </svg>
+    <input type="text" id="searchbar" name="q" aria-label="{% trans 'Search devices...' %}"
+      placeholder="{% trans 'Search devices...' %}" value="{{ request.GET.q }}" class="search-input">
+    <button type="submit" class="search-button">{% trans "Search" %}</button>
+    {% for param, value in request.GET.items %}
+    {% if param != 'q' and param != 'page' %}
+    <input type="hidden" name="{{ param }}" value="{{ value }}">
+    {% endif %}
+    {% endfor %}
+  </form>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Results Table -->
+<div class="results-container">
+  <table id="result_list" class="results-table">
+    <thead>
+      <tr>
+        <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Status" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Output" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Timestamp" %}</th>
+      </tr>
+    </thead>
+    <tbody>
+      {% for command in commands %}
+      <tr class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
+        <td>
+          {% if command.is_skipped %}
+          <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
+          {% else %}
+          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device_pk %}#command_set-2-group"
+            class="device-link" aria-label="{% trans 'View recent commands' %} {{ command.device_name }}">
+            {{ command.device_name }}
+          </a>
+          {% endif %}
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          <span class="command-status {{ command.status }}">{{ command.status_display }}</span>
+        </td>
+        <td class="command-output">
+          <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
+        </td>
+        <td>{{ command.created|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+      </tr>
+      {% empty %}
+      <tr>
+        <td colspan="4" class="empty-results">{% trans "No commands found." %}</td>
+      </tr>
+      {% endfor %}
+    </tbody>
+  </table>
+
+  <!-- Results Count -->
+  {% if paginator %}
+  <p class="paginator">
+    {% blocktrans count counter=paginator.count %}
+      {{ counter }} command
+      {% plural %}{{ counter }} commands
+    {% endblocktrans %}
+  </p>
+  {% endif %}
+
+  <!-- Pagination -->
+  {% if page_obj.has_other_pages %}
+  <div class="pagination">
+    <span class="step-links">
+      {% if page_obj.has_previous %}
+      <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.previous_page_number }}">
+        {% trans 'Previous' %}
+      </a>
+      {% endif %}
+      <span class="current-page">
+        {% trans 'Page' %} {{ page_obj.number }} {% trans 'of' %} {{ page_obj.paginator.num_pages }}
+      </span>
+      {% if page_obj.has_next %}
+      <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.next_page_number }}">
+        {% trans 'Next' %}
+      </a>
+      {% endif %}
+    </span>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block footer %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="{% static 'connection/js/batch-command.js' %}"></script>
+{% endblock %}

From d25a094c39b5bfd5aa332e7b24356ffcf5b7916a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 2 Jul 2026 23:49:48 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 02/27] [feature] Add affected_devices, colored changelist
 status, and label admin link

- Add  cached_property on AbstractBatchCommand (excludes skipped)
- Use  in changelist list_display for consistent status colors
- Replace ID with label as the clickable link in admin changelist
- Add  CSS to command-inline.css for consistency
- Add label, notes to change form fields; reorder columns (created last, affected_devices before created)
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py        | 18 +++++++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py  |  4 ++++
 .../static/connection/css/command-inline.css   |  4 ++++
 3 files changed, 21 insertions(+), 5 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 60d853b7c..e999dc073 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -224,16 +224,17 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     ordering = ("-created",)
     list_display = [
-        "id",
+        "label",
         "organization_display",
-        "status",
+        "colored_status",
         "type",
+        "affected_devices",
         "created",
-        "total_devices",
     ]
+    list_display_links = ["label"]
     list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
     list_select_related = ("organization",)
-    search_fields = ["id"]
+    search_fields = ["label"]
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
@@ -241,7 +242,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
-        "total_devices",
+        "label",
+        "notes",
+        "affected_devices",
         "colored_status",
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
@@ -293,6 +296,11 @@ def formatted_input(self, obj):
 
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
+    def affected_devices(self, obj):
+        return obj.affected_devices
+
+    affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
+
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 43f1adb01..1f2bc67d8 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -803,6 +803,10 @@ def __str__(self):
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
+    @cached_property
+    def affected_devices(self):
+        return self.batch_commands.count()
+
     @property
     def successful(self):
         return self.batch_commands.filter(status="success").count()
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
index 0da80c341..8deda6c5e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
@@ -242,6 +242,10 @@ li.commands:not(.recent) {
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
+.command-status.skipped {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  opacity: 0.7;
+}
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }

From 13c605b6bd9a88f74434224ccf96b35355f123ca Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 7 Jul 2026 02:50:32 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 03/27] [fix] Restructure

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 68 ++++++++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py     | 15 ++++
 .../static/connection/css/command-inline.css  |  4 --
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 43 ------------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  1 -
 5 files changed, 65 insertions(+), 66 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
 delete mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index e999dc073..2409c6595 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
+from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
@@ -222,7 +223,6 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
-    ordering = ("-created",)
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -231,10 +231,23 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "affected_devices",
         "created",
     ]
-    list_display_links = ["label"]
-    list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
+    ordering = ("-created",)
+    list_filter = [
+        MultitenantOrgFilter,
+        "status",
+        "type",
+        GroupFilter,
+        LocationFilter,
+    ]
     list_select_related = ("organization",)
-    search_fields = ["label"]
+    search_fields = [
+        "label",
+        "notes",
+        "organization__name",
+        "devices__name",
+        "location__name",
+        "group__name",
+    ]
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
@@ -244,16 +257,28 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "organization_display",
         "label",
         "notes",
-        "affected_devices",
         "colored_status",
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
+        "affected_devices",
         "group",
         "location",
         "display_skipped_devices",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
+    readonly_fields = [
+        "organization_display",
+        "colored_status",
+        "type",
+        "formatted_input",
+        "affected_devices",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
+        "group",
+        "location",
+        "created",
+        "modified",
+    ]
 
     class Media:
         css = {
@@ -263,13 +288,18 @@ class Media:
                 "connection/css/batch-command.css",
             ]
         }
-        js = [
-            "admin/js/ow-filter.js",
-            "connection/js/batch-command.js",
-        ]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
-        return self.fields or []
+        fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
+        return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
+
+    def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
+        qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related("device")
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(
+                device__organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
+        return qs
 
     def organization_display(self, obj):
         if obj.organization:
@@ -305,10 +335,12 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
         Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
+        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
+        count = len(pks)
         lines = [str(count)]
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+            device = devices.get(pk_str)
             name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
             lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
         return format_html(
@@ -318,7 +350,7 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
 
-    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, current_status):
+    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, obj, current_status):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
 
@@ -365,9 +397,7 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
         if obj:
             Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-            commands_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related(
-                "device"
-            )
+            commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
             if search_query:
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
@@ -388,8 +418,10 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                     }
                 )
             if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
+                pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
                 for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-                    device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+                    device = devices.get(pk_str)
                     name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
                     if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
                         continue
@@ -410,7 +442,7 @@ def _sort_key(row):
                 return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
 
             rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
-            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, current_status)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, obj, current_status)
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b0623c387
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
+
+from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter
+
+
+class GroupFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
+    field_name = "group"
+    parameter_name = "group_id"
+    title = _("group")
+
+
+class LocationFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
+    field_name = "location"
+    parameter_name = "location_id"
+    title = _("location")
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
index 8deda6c5e..0da80c341 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
@@ -242,10 +242,6 @@ li.commands:not(.recent) {
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-.command-status.skipped {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  opacity: 0.7;
-}
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
deleted file mode 100644
index b066770aa..000000000
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-(function () {
-  "use strict";
-
-  var pollInterval = 3000;
-  var pollTimer = null;
-
-  function getBatchStatus() {
-    var statusEl = document.querySelector(".field-status .readonly");
-    if (!statusEl) return null;
-    var text = statusEl.textContent.trim().toLowerCase();
-    if (text.indexOf("in progress") !== -1) return "in-progress";
-    if (text.indexOf("success") !== -1) return "success";
-    if (text.indexOf("failed") !== -1) return "failed";
-    if (text.indexOf("idle") !== -1) return "idle";
-    return null;
-  }
-
-  function shouldPoll() {
-    var status = getBatchStatus();
-    return status === "in-progress" || status === "idle";
-  }
-
-  function reloadPage() {
-    window.location.reload();
-  }
-
-  function startPolling() {
-    stopPolling();
-    if (!shouldPoll()) return;
-    pollTimer = setInterval(reloadPage, pollInterval);
-  }
-
-  function stopPolling() {
-    if (pollTimer) {
-      clearInterval(pollTimer);
-      pollTimer = null;
-    }
-  }
-
-  document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function () {
-    startPolling();
-  });
-})();
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 81d0e812d..43ae2a83c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -170,5 +170,4 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 {% block footer %}
 {{ block.super }}
 <script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
-<script type="text/javascript" src="{% static 'connection/js/batch-command.js' %}"></script>
 {% endblock %}

From f395a69349303681e63c0a2f9dd7b096c73356cb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 24 Jul 2026 19:15:08 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 04/27] [fix] Add filters

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py   | 155 +++++++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py |  21 +++
 2 files changed, 169 insertions(+), 7 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 2409c6595..970eae743 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import json
 from datetime import timedelta
 
 import reversion
@@ -18,7 +17,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
-from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter
+from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
@@ -235,7 +234,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     list_filter = [
         MultitenantOrgFilter,
         "status",
-        "type",
+        TypeFilter,
         GroupFilter,
         LocationFilter,
     ]
@@ -350,7 +349,15 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
 
-    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, obj, current_status):
+    def _build_filter_specs(
+        self,
+        request,
+        obj,
+        current_status,
+        current_location=None,
+        current_group=None,
+        current_org=None,
+    ):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
 
@@ -380,6 +387,103 @@ class StatusFilter:
             choices = status_choices
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+
+        # Location filter
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        location_qs = (
+            Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
+            .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
+            .values_list(
+                "devicelocation__location__id",
+                "devicelocation__location__name",
+            )
+            .distinct()
+        )
+        location_choices = []
+        location_choices.append(
+            _make_choice(current_location or "", _("All"), "location_id", "")
+        )
+        for loc_id, loc_name in location_qs:
+            if loc_id:
+                location_choices.append(
+                    _make_choice(
+                        current_location or "",
+                        loc_name,
+                        "location_id",
+                        str(loc_id),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        if len(location_choices) > 1:
+
+            class LocationFilterCls:
+                title = _("location")
+                choices = location_choices
+
+            filter_specs.append(LocationFilterCls())
+
+        # Group filter
+        group_qs = (
+            Device.objects.filter(
+                command__batch_command=obj,
+                group__isnull=False,
+            )
+            .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
+            .distinct()
+        )
+        group_choices = []
+        group_choices.append(
+            _make_choice(current_group or "", _("All"), "group_id", "")
+        )
+        for grp_id, grp_name in group_qs:
+            if grp_id:
+                group_choices.append(
+                    _make_choice(
+                        current_group or "",
+                        grp_name,
+                        "group_id",
+                        str(grp_id),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        if len(group_choices) > 1:
+
+            class GroupFilterCls:
+                title = _("device group")
+                choices = group_choices
+
+            filter_specs.append(GroupFilterCls())
+
+        # Organization filter (superusers only)
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            org_qs = (
+                Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
+                .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
+                .distinct()
+            )
+            org_choices = []
+            org_choices.append(
+                _make_choice(current_org or "", _("All"), "organization_id", "")
+            )
+            for org_id, org_name in org_qs:
+                if org_id:
+                    org_choices.append(
+                        _make_choice(
+                            current_org or "",
+                            org_name,
+                            "organization_id",
+                            str(org_id),
+                        )
+                    )
+
+            if len(org_choices) > 1:
+
+                class OrganizationFilterCls:
+                    title = _("organization")
+                    choices = org_choices
+
+                filter_specs.append(OrganizationFilterCls())
+
         return filter_specs
 
     def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
@@ -402,8 +506,19 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             if search_query:
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
             current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
+            current_location = request.GET.get("location_id", "")
+            current_group = request.GET.get("group_id", "")
+            current_org = request.GET.get("organization_id", "")
             if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
+            if current_location:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(
+                    device__devicelocation__location_id=current_location
+                )
+            if current_group:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__group_id=current_group)
+            if current_org:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__organization_id=current_org)
             rows = []
             for cmd in commands_qs:
                 rows.append(
@@ -419,10 +534,29 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                 )
             if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
                 pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
+                device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
+                if current_location:
+                    DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+                    device_locations = set(
+                        DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                            device_id__in=pks,
+                            location_id=current_location,
+                        ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
+                    )
+                else:
+                    device_locations = None
+                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
                 for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
                     device = devices.get(pk_str)
-                    name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+                    if not device:
+                        continue
+                    if current_org and str(device.organization_id) != current_org:
+                        continue
+                    if current_group and str(device.group_id) != current_group:
+                        continue
+                    if current_location and pk_str not in device_locations:
+                        continue
+                    name = device.name
                     if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
                         continue
                     rows.append(
@@ -442,7 +576,14 @@ def _sort_key(row):
                 return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
 
             rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
-            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, obj, current_status)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
+                request,
+                obj,
+                current_status,
+                current_location=current_location,
+                current_group=current_group,
+                current_org=current_org,
+            )
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
index b0623c387..7d03b9be0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
+from django.contrib import admin
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
+from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter
 
@@ -13,3 +15,22 @@ class LocationFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
     field_name = "location"
     parameter_name = "location_id"
     title = _("location")
+
+
+class TypeFilter(admin.SimpleListFilter):
+    title = _("type")
+    parameter_name = "type"
+
+    def lookups(self, request, model_admin):
+        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+        qs = BatchCommand.objects.all()
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
+        types = qs.values_list("type", flat=True).distinct()
+        choices = dict(BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices)
+        return [(t, choices.get(t, t)) for t in types]
+
+    def queryset(self, request, queryset):
+        if self.value():
+            return queryset.filter(type=self.value())
+        return queryset

From 8444915ff31e16a5236b2f8929135386a26e4d33 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 28 Jul 2026 02:42:30 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 05/27] [feature] Add new execute and confirm page

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 432 +++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 536 ++++++++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 157 +++++
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        | 155 +++++
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        | 159 ++++++
 6 files changed, 1287 insertions(+), 154 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 970eae743..47f42d760 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 from datetime import timedelta
+from types import SimpleNamespace
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin
+from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
+from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
 from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
 from django.utils.safestring import mark_safe
@@ -39,6 +42,43 @@ class Meta:
         widgets = {"input": CommandSchemaWidget}
 
 
+class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
+    """Form layout for the mass command execution workflow.
+
+    The execution and confirmation behavior is intentionally added separately.
+    Keeping the form here lets the custom admin view use the same model fields
+    and tenant-scoped choices as the eventual workflow.
+    """
+
+    class Meta:
+        model = BatchCommand
+        fields = [
+            "organization",
+            "label",
+            "notes",
+            "type",
+            "input",
+            "group",
+            "location",
+            "devices",
+        ]
+        widgets = {
+            "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
+            "input": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 5}),
+            "devices": forms.SelectMultiple(attrs={"size": 8}),
+        }
+
+    def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
+        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
+        if request is None or request.user.is_superuser:
+            return
+        organization_ids = request.user.organizations_managed
+        for field_name in ("organization", "group", "location", "devices"):
+            self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
+                organization_id__in=organization_ids
+            )
+
+
 @admin.register(Credentials)
 class CredentialsAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin, admin.ModelAdmin):
     list_display = (
@@ -222,6 +262,8 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
+    execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
+    confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -288,6 +330,108 @@ class Media:
             ]
         }
 
+    def get_urls(self):
+        options = self.model._meta
+        return [
+            path(
+                "execute/",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.execute_command_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_execute",
+            ),
+            path(
+                "confirm/",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.confirm_command_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_confirm",
+            ),
+        ] + super().get_urls()
+
+    def execute_command_view(self, request):
+        """Render the first step of the mass command workflow.
+
+        This page only collects command details for now. The preview and
+        confirmation POST flow will be added in a later change.
+        """
+        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
+        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
+            raise PermissionDenied
+        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
+        context = {
+            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+            "title": _("Execute mass command"),
+            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "form": form,
+            "media": self.media + form.media,
+            "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
+        }
+        return TemplateResponse(request, self.execute_command_template, context)
+
+    def confirm_command_view(self, request):
+        """Render the second step of the mass command workflow.
+
+        Displays a summary of the command to be executed and provides
+        an Execute button to create the BatchCommand.
+        """
+        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
+        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
+            raise PermissionDenied
+        command_type = request.GET.get("type", "")
+        label = request.GET.get("label", "")
+        notes = request.GET.get("notes", "")
+        organization_id = request.GET.get("organization", "")
+        group_id = request.GET.get("group", "")
+        location_id = request.GET.get("location", "")
+        device_ids = request.GET.getlist("devices")
+
+        command_type_display = command_type
+        command_description = ""
+        for choice_value, choice_label in BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices:
+            if choice_value == command_type:
+                command_type_display = choice_label
+                break
+
+        targets_parts = []
+        if organization_id:
+            Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
+            try:
+                org = Organization.objects.get(pk=organization_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(org))
+            except Organization.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        if group_id:
+            DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+            try:
+                group = DeviceGroup.objects.get(pk=group_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(group))
+            except DeviceGroup.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        if location_id:
+            Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
+            try:
+                location = Location.objects.get(pk=location_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(location))
+            except Location.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        targets_display = (
+            ", ".join(targets_parts) if targets_parts else _("All devices")
+        )
+
+        device_count = len(device_ids) if device_ids else 0
+        skipped_devices_count = 0
+
+        context = {
+            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+            "title": _("Review mass command"),
+            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "command_type_display": command_type_display,
+            "command_description": command_description,
+            "targets_display": targets_display,
+            "device_count": device_count,
+            "skipped_devices_count": skipped_devices_count,
+            "media": self.media,
+            "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
+        }
+        return TemplateResponse(request, self.confirm_command_template, context)
+
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
         return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
@@ -303,6 +447,8 @@ def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
     def organization_display(self, obj):
         if obj.organization:
             return obj.organization.name
+        # Will return Shared systemwide (no organization) after
+        # https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-users/issues/238
         return _("All")
 
     organization_display.short_description = _("organization")
@@ -347,7 +493,7 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
         )
 
-    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
+    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
 
     def _build_filter_specs(
         self,
@@ -376,7 +522,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
 
         status_choices = []
         for status_value, display_name in (
-            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("Skipped")),)
+            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("skipped")),)
         ):
             status_choices.append(
                 _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
@@ -388,104 +534,68 @@ class StatusFilter:
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
 
-        # Location filter
         Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        location_qs = (
+
+        # Location filter
+        location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+            _("location"),
+            "location_id",
+            current_location or "",
             Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
             .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
             .values_list(
                 "devicelocation__location__id",
                 "devicelocation__location__name",
             )
-            .distinct()
+            .distinct(),
+            _make_choice,
         )
-        location_choices = []
-        location_choices.append(
-            _make_choice(current_location or "", _("All"), "location_id", "")
-        )
-        for loc_id, loc_name in location_qs:
-            if loc_id:
-                location_choices.append(
-                    _make_choice(
-                        current_location or "",
-                        loc_name,
-                        "location_id",
-                        str(loc_id),
-                    )
-                )
-
-        if len(location_choices) > 1:
-
-            class LocationFilterCls:
-                title = _("location")
-                choices = location_choices
-
-            filter_specs.append(LocationFilterCls())
+        if location_spec:
+            filter_specs.append(location_spec)
 
         # Group filter
-        group_qs = (
+        group_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+            _("device group"),
+            "group_id",
+            current_group or "",
             Device.objects.filter(
                 command__batch_command=obj,
                 group__isnull=False,
             )
             .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
-            .distinct()
-        )
-        group_choices = []
-        group_choices.append(
-            _make_choice(current_group or "", _("All"), "group_id", "")
+            .distinct(),
+            _make_choice,
         )
-        for grp_id, grp_name in group_qs:
-            if grp_id:
-                group_choices.append(
-                    _make_choice(
-                        current_group or "",
-                        grp_name,
-                        "group_id",
-                        str(grp_id),
-                    )
-                )
-
-        if len(group_choices) > 1:
-
-            class GroupFilterCls:
-                title = _("device group")
-                choices = group_choices
-
-            filter_specs.append(GroupFilterCls())
+        if group_spec:
+            filter_specs.append(group_spec)
 
         # Organization filter (superusers only)
         if request.user.is_superuser:
-            org_qs = (
+            org_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+                _("organization"),
+                "organization_id",
+                current_org or "",
                 Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
                 .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
-                .distinct()
+                .distinct(),
+                _make_choice,
             )
-            org_choices = []
-            org_choices.append(
-                _make_choice(current_org or "", _("All"), "organization_id", "")
-            )
-            for org_id, org_name in org_qs:
-                if org_id:
-                    org_choices.append(
-                        _make_choice(
-                            current_org or "",
-                            org_name,
-                            "organization_id",
-                            str(org_id),
-                        )
-                    )
-
-            if len(org_choices) > 1:
-
-                class OrganizationFilterCls:
-                    title = _("organization")
-                    choices = org_choices
-
-                filter_specs.append(OrganizationFilterCls())
+            if org_spec:
+                filter_specs.append(org_spec)
 
         return filter_specs
 
+    def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choice):
+        choices = [make_choice(current_value, _("All"), param_name, "")]
+        for obj_id, obj_name in qs:
+            if obj_id:
+                choices.append(
+                    make_choice(current_value, obj_name, param_name, str(obj_id))
+                )
+        if len(choices) <= 1:
+            return None
+        return SimpleNamespace(title=title, choices=choices)
+
     def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
@@ -496,93 +606,109 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
             page_obj = paginator.page(1)
         return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
 
+    def _get_active_filters(self, request):
+        return {
+            "q": request.GET.get("q", ""),
+            "status": request.GET.get("status", ""),
+            "location_id": request.GET.get("location_id", ""),
+            "group_id": request.GET.get("group_id", ""),
+            "organization_id": request.GET.get("organization_id", ""),
+        }
+
+    def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
+        if filters["q"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
+        status = filters["status"]
+        if status and status != "skipped":
+            qs = qs.filter(status=status)
+        if filters["location_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"])
+        if filters["group_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__group_id=filters["group_id"])
+        if filters["organization_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__organization_id=filters["organization_id"])
+        return qs
+
+    def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
+        location_id = filters["location_id"]
+        if location_id:
+            DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+            device_locations = set(
+                DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                    device_id__in=pks,
+                    location_id=location_id,
+                ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
+            )
+        else:
+            device_locations = None
+        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
+        rows = []
+        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+            device = devices.get(pk_str)
+            if not device:
+                continue
+            if (
+                filters["organization_id"]
+                and str(device.organization_id) != filters["organization_id"]
+            ):
+                continue
+            if filters["group_id"] and str(device.group_id) != filters["group_id"]:
+                continue
+            if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
+                continue
+            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in device.name.lower():
+                continue
+            rows.append(
+                {
+                    "device_name": device.name,
+                    "device_pk": pk_str,
+                    "status": "skipped",
+                    "status_display": _("skipped"),
+                    "output": ", ".join(errors),
+                    "created": None,
+                    "is_skipped": True,
+                }
+            )
+        return rows
+
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         extra_context = extra_context or {}
         obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
         if obj:
-            Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
-            search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
-            if search_query:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
-            current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
-            current_location = request.GET.get("location_id", "")
-            current_group = request.GET.get("group_id", "")
-            current_org = request.GET.get("organization_id", "")
-            if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
-            if current_location:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(
-                    device__devicelocation__location_id=current_location
-                )
-            if current_group:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__group_id=current_group)
-            if current_org:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__organization_id=current_org)
-            rows = []
-            for cmd in commands_qs:
-                rows.append(
-                    {
-                        "device_name": cmd.device.name,
-                        "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
-                        "status": cmd.status,
-                        "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
-                        "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
-                        "created": cmd.created,
-                        "is_skipped": False,
-                    }
+            filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
+            commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
+            rows = [
+                {
+                    "device_name": cmd.device.name,
+                    "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
+                    "status": cmd.status,
+                    "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
+                    "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
+                    "created": cmd.created,
+                    "is_skipped": False,
+                }
+                for cmd in commands_qs
+            ]
+            if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
+                rows.extend(self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters))
+            # Sort by status priority: success(0) > failed(1) > skipped(2), then alphabetically
+            rows.sort(
+                key=lambda r: (
+                    {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}.get(r["status"], 99),
+                    r["device_name"].lower(),
                 )
-            if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
-                pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-                device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
-                if current_location:
-                    DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
-                    device_locations = set(
-                        DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                            device_id__in=pks,
-                            location_id=current_location,
-                        ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
-                    )
-                else:
-                    device_locations = None
-                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
-                for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-                    device = devices.get(pk_str)
-                    if not device:
-                        continue
-                    if current_org and str(device.organization_id) != current_org:
-                        continue
-                    if current_group and str(device.group_id) != current_group:
-                        continue
-                    if current_location and pk_str not in device_locations:
-                        continue
-                    name = device.name
-                    if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
-                        continue
-                    rows.append(
-                        {
-                            "device_name": name,
-                            "device_pk": pk_str,
-                            "status": "skipped",
-                            "status_display": _("Skipped"),
-                            "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                            "created": None,
-                            "is_skipped": True,
-                        }
-                    )
-
-            def _sort_key(row):
-                priority = {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}
-                return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
-
-            rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
+            )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
                 obj,
-                current_status,
-                current_location=current_location,
-                current_group=current_group,
-                current_org=current_org,
+                filters["status"],
+                current_location=filters["location_id"],
+                current_group=filters["group_id"],
+                current_org=filters["organization_id"],
             )
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 1f2bc67d8..20bc3d642 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -784,7 +784,7 @@ class AbstractBatchCommand(ValidateOrgMixin, TimeStampedEditableModel):
         blank=True,
         null=True,
         default=dict,
-        verbose_name=_("Skipped devices"),
+        verbose_name=_("skipped devices"),
         help_text=_(
             "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for devices "
             "that were skipped during command creation."
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index cff9510f1..3e3a4c5b4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -129,6 +129,10 @@
   padding: 0;
 }
 
+#content-main {
+  margin: 20px;
+}
+
 /* Adjustments for list filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
@@ -142,3 +146,535 @@
 #main #content .filters-top {
   margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
 }
+
+/* ================================================================
+   EXECUTION PAGE — Step 1 of 2
+   ================================================================ */
+
+.batch-command-execution {
+  max-width: 80rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Heading ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
+  font-size: 1.625rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  margin: 0 0 0.25rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading p {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Stepper ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.stepper {
+  --stepper-bg: #ffffff;
+  --stepper-border: #e2e8f0;
+  --stepper-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05), 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);
+  --stepper-radius: 9999px;
+
+  --step-active-bg: #0d7377;
+  --step-active-text: #ffffff;
+  --step-active-highlight: #d5f1ea;
+  --step-active-tint: #f0faf6;
+  --step-active-underline: #0d7377;
+
+  --step-inactive-bg: #e8eaed;
+  --step-inactive-text: #9aa0a6;
+
+  --divider-color: #e2e8f0;
+  --arrow-color: #9aa0a6;
+  display: inline-flex;
+  align-items: stretch;
+  overflow: hidden;
+  margin-bottom: 1.75rem;
+}
+
+.stepper__step {
+  align-items: center;
+  cursor: pointer;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  padding: 0.875rem 1.5rem 0.875rem 0;
+  position: relative;
+}
+
+/* Badge */
+.stepper__badge {
+  align-items: center;
+  border-radius: 50%;
+  display: flex;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  height: 2rem;
+  justify-content: center;
+  position: relative;
+  width: 2rem;
+  z-index: 1;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  color: var(--step-active-text);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge::before {
+  background-color: var(--step-active-highlight);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: var(--step-inactive-bg);
+  color: var(--step-inactive-text);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge::before {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+/* Label */
+.stepper__label {
+  display: flex;
+  flex-direction: column;
+  gap: 0.2rem;
+  min-width: 0;
+}
+
+.stepper__label-text {
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  line-height: 1.2;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__label-text {
+  color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__label-text {
+  color: var(--step-inactive-text);
+  font-weight: 500;
+}
+
+/* Divider + arrow */
+.stepper__divider {
+  align-items: center;
+  display: flex;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  justify-content: center;
+  padding: 0.5rem 1rem 0.5rem 0;
+}
+
+.stepper__arrow {
+  color: var(--arrow-color);
+  display: block;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  height: 1rem;
+  width: 1rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Cards ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-card {
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 1rem;
+  box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.04);
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
+  overflow: hidden;
+}
+
+.bce-card__header {
+  padding: 1.5rem 2rem 0;
+}
+
+.bce-card__header-row {
+  align-items: flex-start;
+  display: flex;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+}
+
+.bce-card__title {
+  font-size: 1.125rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  margin: 0 0 0.2rem;
+}
+
+.bce-card__subtitle {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-card__muted {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.bce-card__body {
+  padding: 1.25rem 2rem 2rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Form fields inside cards ───────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-field {
+  margin-bottom: 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field:last-child {
+  margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-field label,
+.bce-field > div > label {
+  display: block;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  margin-bottom: 0.4rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field select,
+.bce-field textarea,
+.bce-field input[type="text"],
+.bce-field input[type="number"],
+.bce-field input[type="password"] {
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #d0d5dd;
+  border-radius: 0.5rem;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  max-width: 100%;
+  padding: 0.625rem 0.875rem;
+  transition:
+    border-color 0.15s ease,
+    box-shadow 0.15s ease;
+  width: 100%;
+}
+
+.bce-field select:focus,
+.bce-field textarea:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="text"]:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="number"]:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="password"]:focus {
+  border-color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  box-shadow: 0 0 0 3px rgba(13, 115, 119, 0.12);
+  outline: none;
+}
+
+.bce-field select[multiple] {
+  min-height: 8rem;
+  padding: 0.5rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field .help {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  margin-top: 0.35rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field .errors {
+  list-style: none;
+  margin: 0.25rem 0 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-field .errors li {
+  color: var(--error-fg);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field-grid {
+  display: grid;
+  gap: 1.25rem;
+  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;
+}
+
+/* ── Warning banner ─────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-warning {
+  align-items: flex-start;
+  background: #fffbeb;
+  border: 1px solid #fde68a;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  color: #92400e;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  margin: 0 2rem 1.5rem;
+  padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-warning svg {
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  height: 1.25rem;
+  margin-top: 0.1rem;
+  width: 1.25rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Device summary banner ──────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-device-summary {
+  align-items: center;
+  background: #eff6ff;
+  border: 1px solid #bfdbfe;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  color: #1e40af;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+  padding: 0.875rem 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-device-summary__live {
+  align-items: center;
+  color: #6b7280;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 400;
+  gap: 0.4rem;
+}
+
+.bce-device-summary__dot {
+  background: #22c55e;
+  border-radius: 50%;
+  display: inline-block;
+  height: 6px;
+  width: 6px;
+}
+
+/* ── Submit row ──────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions {
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  justify-content: flex-end;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions .cancel-link {
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions button[disabled] {
+  cursor: not-allowed;
+  opacity: 0.5;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__form > .help {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  margin: 0.75rem 0 0;
+  text-align: right;
+}
+
+/* ================================================================
+   CONFIRM / REVIEW PAGE — Step 2 of 2
+   ================================================================ */
+
+/* ── Completed stepper step ─────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: #059669;
+  color: #ffffff;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge::before {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+.stepper__check {
+  display: block;
+  height: 1rem;
+  width: 1rem;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__label-text {
+  color: #059669;
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+/* ── Edit link ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-card__edit-link {
+  align-items: center;
+  color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  display: inline-flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  gap: 0.35rem;
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+.bce-card__edit-link:hover {
+  text-decoration: underline;
+}
+
+.bce-card__edit-link svg {
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Summary definition list ────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-summary {
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__row {
+  align-items: baseline;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 1rem;
+  padding: 0.75rem 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__row + .bcr-summary__row {
+  border-top: 1px solid #f1f5f9;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__label {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 400;
+  min-width: 8rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value {
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value strong {
+  font-weight: 700;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value--warning {
+  color: #d97706;
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__badge {
+  background: #f1f5f9;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 0.375rem;
+  display: inline-block;
+  font-family: ui-monospace, SFMono-Regular, "SF Mono", Menlo, Consolas, monospace;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  padding: 0.15rem 0.5rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__desc {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-weight: 400;
+  margin-left: 0.35rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Affected devices placeholder ───────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-devices-placeholder {
+  min-height: 6rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Sticky action bar ──────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-action-bar {
+  align-items: center;
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  bottom: 1.5rem;
+  box-shadow:
+    0 4px 6px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07),
+    0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 1.5rem;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+  padding: 1rem 1.5rem;
+  position: sticky;
+  z-index: 10;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__summary {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__summary strong {
+  color: var(--body-fg);
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__actions {
+  align-items: center;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Responsive ─────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+  .batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
+    font-size: 1.375rem;
+  }
+
+  .bce-card__header {
+    padding: 1.25rem 1.25rem 0;
+  }
+
+  .bce-card__body {
+    padding: 1rem 1.25rem 1.5rem;
+  }
+
+  .bce-field-grid {
+    grid-template-columns: 1fr;
+  }
+
+  .stepper {
+    max-width: 100%;
+  }
+
+  .stepper__step {
+    padding: 0.75rem 1rem 0.75rem 0;
+  }
+
+  .stepper__label-text {
+    font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-summary__row {
+    flex-direction: column;
+    gap: 0.25rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-summary__label {
+    min-width: 0;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar {
+    flex-direction: column;
+    gap: 1rem;
+    padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar__actions {
+    width: 100%;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar__actions .button {
+    flex: 1;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b832a5009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  "use strict";
+
+  var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+  var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+
+  var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+  if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+
+  var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+  var $container = $("#command-input-container");
+  var fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
+  var $hiddenInput;
+
+  function ensureHiddenInput() {
+    $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
+    if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+      $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+      $form.append($hiddenInput);
+    }
+  }
+
+  function clearContainer() {
+    $container.empty();
+  }
+
+  function syncCustom() {
+    var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+    val = $.trim(val);
+    $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+  }
+
+  function syncPassword() {
+    var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
+    var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
+    $hiddenInput.val(
+      pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+    );
+  }
+
+  function buildCustomField() {
+    var $wrapper = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $wrapper.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-command">Command</label>');
+    $wrapper.append(
+      '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
+        fieldName +
+        '" placeholder="e.g. uptime" class="vTextField">',
+    );
+    $wrapper.append(
+      '<div class="help">Enter the shell command to run on all devices</div>',
+    );
+    $container.append($wrapper);
+  }
+
+  function buildChangePasswordField() {
+    var $grid = $('<div class="bce-field-grid"></div>');
+
+    var $pwField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $pwField.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-password">New password</label>');
+    $pwField.append(
+      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+    );
+    $grid.append($pwField);
+
+    var $cpField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $cpField.append(
+      '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password">Confirm password</label>',
+    );
+    $cpField.append(
+      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+    );
+    $grid.append($cpField);
+
+    $container.append($grid);
+    $container.append(
+      '<div class="bce-field"><div class="help">Password must be at least 6 characters long</div></div>',
+    );
+  }
+
+  function onTypeChange() {
+    var selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    clearContainer();
+
+    if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      buildCustomField();
+      syncCustom();
+    } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      buildChangePasswordField();
+      syncPassword();
+    } else {
+      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    }
+  }
+
+  ensureHiddenInput();
+  $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
+  $container.on(
+    "input",
+    "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
+    syncPassword,
+  );
+  $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
+  onTypeChange();
+
+  var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
+  if ($reviewBtn.length) {
+    $typeSelect.on("change", function () {
+      $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$(this).val());
+    });
+    $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$typeSelect.val());
+
+    $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
+      var type = $typeSelect.val();
+      if (!type) return;
+
+      var params = new URLSearchParams();
+      params.append("type", type);
+
+      var inputVal = $hiddenInput.val();
+      if (inputVal) {
+        params.append("input", inputVal);
+      }
+
+      var label = $("#id_label").val();
+      if (label) {
+        params.append("label", label);
+      }
+
+      var notes = $("#id_notes").val();
+      if (notes) {
+        params.append("notes", notes);
+      }
+
+      var org = $("#id_organization").val();
+      if (org) {
+        params.append("organization", org);
+      }
+
+      var group = $("#id_group").val();
+      if (group) {
+        params.append("group", group);
+      }
+
+      var location = $("#id_location").val();
+      if (location) {
+        params.append("location", location);
+      }
+
+      $("#id_devices option:selected").each(function () {
+        params.append("devices", $(this).val());
+      });
+
+      var confirmUrl = window.location.href.replace("execute/", "confirm/");
+      window.location.href = confirmUrl.split("?")[0] + "?" + params.toString();
+    });
+  }
+});
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a6975ab80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{{ media }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% block breadcrumbs %}
+<div class="breadcrumbs">
+  <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; {% trans 'Review mass command' %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
+  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
+    <h1>{% trans 'Review mass command' %}</h1>
+    <p>{% trans 'Confirm what will run before execution.' %}</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--completed">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">
+        <svg class="stepper__check" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+          <path d="M3.5 8.5L6.5 11.5L12.5 5.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+        </svg>
+      </span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+      </svg>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+  </nav>
+
+  {# ── Summary card ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-card">
+    <div class="bce-card__header">
+      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+        <div>
+          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
+        </div>
+        <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="bce-card__edit-link">
+          <svg viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="14" height="14">
+            <path d="M10.5 3.5L12.5 5.5L5.5 12.5H3.5V10.5L10.5 3.5Z" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+          </svg>
+          {% trans 'Edit' %}
+        </a>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="bce-card__body">
+      <dl class="bcr-summary">
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Command' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
+            <span class="bcr-summary__badge">{{ command_type_display }}</span>
+            {% if command_description %}<span class="bcr-summary__desc">&mdash; {{ command_description }}</span>{% endif %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Targets' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ targets_display }}</dd>
+        </div>
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will run on' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
+            <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        {% if skipped_devices_count %}
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will skip' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value bcr-summary__value--warning">
+            {{ skipped_devices_count }} {% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ request.user }}</dd>
+        </div>
+      </dl>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  {% if skipped_devices_count %}
+  {# ── Warning banner ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-warning">
+    <svg viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M8.257 3.099c.765-1.36 2.722-1.36 3.486 0l5.58 9.92c.75 1.334-.213 2.98-1.742 2.98H4.42c-1.53 0-2.493-1.646-1.743-2.98l5.58-9.92zM11 13a1 1 0 10-2 0 1 1 0 002 0zm-1-8a1 1 0 00-1 1v3a1 1 0 002 0V6a1 1 0 00-1-1z" clip-rule="evenodd"/>
+    </svg>
+    <div>
+      <strong>{% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} device will be skipped{% plural %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} devices will be skipped{% endblocktrans %}</strong>
+      <p>{% trans 'These devices do not match the selected filters or are not available.' %}</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+
+  {# ── Affected devices ──────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-card">
+    <div class="bce-card__header">
+      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+        <div>
+          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
+          <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Devices that will receive this command' %}</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="bce-card__body">
+      <div class="bcr-devices-placeholder"></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  {# ── Sticky action bar ─────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bcr-action-bar">
+    <div class="bcr-action-bar__summary">
+      {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
+      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> device
+      {% plural %}
+      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> devices
+      {% endblocktrans %}
+    </div>
+    <div class="bcr-action-bar__actions">
+      <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="button">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="button default">
+        {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
+        Execute on {{ device_count }} device
+        {% plural %}
+        Execute on {{ device_count }} devices
+        {% endblocktrans %}
+      </button>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..851311e37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{{ media }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+<script src="{% static 'connection/js/execute-command.js' %}"></script>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% block breadcrumbs %}
+<div class="breadcrumbs">
+  <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; {% trans 'Execute mass command' %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
+  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
+    <h1>{% trans 'Execute mass command' %}</h1>
+    <p>{% trans 'Run a shell command across many devices at once' %}</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+      </svg>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+  </nav>
+
+  <form class="batch-command-execution__form" novalidate>
+
+    {# ── Command card ─────────────────────────────────── #}
+    <div class="bce-card">
+      <div class="bce-card__header">
+        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+          <div>
+            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Command' %}</h2>
+            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'What to run on the selected devices' %}</p>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="bce-card__body">
+        {% with field=form.type %}
+        <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+          {{ field.errors }}
+          <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+          {{ field }}
+          {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+        </div>
+        {% endwith %}
+
+        <div id="command-input-container"></div>
+
+        <div class="bce-field-grid">
+          {% with field=form.label %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.notes %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    {# ── Targets card ──────────────────────────────────── #}
+    <div class="bce-card">
+      <div class="bce-card__header">
+        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+          <div>
+            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Targets' %}</h2>
+            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Which devices receive this command' %}</p>
+          </div>
+          <span class="bce-card__muted">{% trans 'Filters combine with AND' %}</span>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="bce-card__body">
+        <div class="bce-field-grid">
+          {% with field=form.organization %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.location %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.group %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="bce-device-summary">
+          <span>{% trans '12 devices match these filters' %}</span>
+          <span class="bce-device-summary__live">
+            <span class="bce-device-summary__dot"></span>
+            {% trans 'Updated live' %}
+          </span>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    {# ── Hidden submit (kept for form validation) ──────── #}
+    <div class="submit-row batch-command-execution__actions">
+      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans 'Cancel' %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">
+        {% trans 'Review command' %}
+      </button>
+    </div>
+  </form>
+</div>
+{% endblock %}

From 9f49c9f6266386f9e0fb90274a91e67ed433480f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 9 Aug 2026 23:25:29 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 06/27] [fix] Test with monitoring

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 484 ++++++++++++++----
 .../connection/api/serializers.py             |  13 +
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  79 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  99 ++--
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  90 ++++
 .../connection/channels/routing.py            |   6 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py    |   8 +
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 459 ++---------------
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 357 +++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 460 ++++++++++++-----
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  20 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        | 253 ++++-----
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        | 249 +++++----
 13 files changed, 1625 insertions(+), 952 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 47f42d760..9a6d70cd0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,13 +1,15 @@
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
+from uuid import uuid4
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
-from django.contrib import admin
-from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied
+from django.contrib import admin, messages
+from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
+from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
 from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
@@ -20,6 +22,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
+from . import settings as app_settings
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
@@ -43,13 +46,16 @@ class Meta:
 
 
 class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
-    """Form layout for the mass command execution workflow.
+    """Collects the mass command details on the first step of the workflow.
 
-    The execution and confirmation behavior is intentionally added separately.
-    Keeping the form here lets the custom admin view use the same model fields
-    and tenant-scoped choices as the eventual workflow.
+    This form is the only place where the submitted values are validated.
+    Narrowing the querysets in ``__init__`` controls what the widgets offer,
+    it does not control what is accepted, so ``clean()`` re-checks the
+    submitted values against the organizations the user actually manages.
     """
 
+    required_css_class = "required"
+
     class Meta:
         model = BatchCommand
         fields = [
@@ -60,24 +66,101 @@ class Meta:
             "input",
             "group",
             "location",
-            "devices",
         ]
         widgets = {
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            "input": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 5}),
-            "devices": forms.SelectMultiple(attrs={"size": 8}),
+            # filled in by execute-command.js, which renders the fields
+            # relevant to the selected command type
+            "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
+        }
+
+    class Media:
+        # select2 must be loaded before jquery.init.js, which calls
+        # jQuery.noConflict(): same ordering as admin.widgets.AutocompleteMixin
+        js = [
+            "admin/js/vendor/jquery/jquery.min.js",
+            "admin/js/vendor/select2/select2.full.min.js",
+            "admin/js/jquery.init.js",
+            "connection/js/execute-command.js",
+        ]
+        css = {
+            "screen": [
+                "admin/css/vendor/select2/select2.min.css",
+                "admin/css/autocomplete.css",
+            ]
         }
 
     def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
         super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
+        self.request = request
         if request is None or request.user.is_superuser:
             return
         organization_ids = request.user.organizations_managed
-        for field_name in ("organization", "group", "location", "devices"):
+        self.fields["organization"].queryset = self.fields[
+            "organization"
+        ].queryset.filter(id__in=organization_ids)
+        for field_name in ("group", "location"):
             self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
                 organization_id__in=organization_ids
             )
 
+    def clean(self):
+        cleaned_data = super().clean()
+        if self.request is None or self.request.user.is_superuser:
+            return cleaned_data
+        organization = cleaned_data.get("organization")
+        group = cleaned_data.get("group")
+        location = cleaned_data.get("location")
+        # a batch without any target would run on every device of the
+        # deployment, which only superusers are allowed to do
+        if not any([organization, group, location]):
+            raise ValidationError(
+                _(
+                    "Please select at least one of: organization, device group,"
+                    " or location."
+                )
+            )
+        # "organizations_managed" is a list of organization UUIDs as strings
+        organization_ids = self.request.user.organizations_managed
+        related_organizations = (
+            ("organization", organization.pk if organization else None),
+            ("group", group.organization_id if group else None),
+            ("location", location.organization_id if location else None),
+        )
+        for field_name, organization_id in related_organizations:
+            if organization_id is None:
+                continue
+            if str(organization_id) not in organization_ids:
+                self.add_error(field_name, _("Select a valid choice."))
+        return cleaned_data
+
+    def to_session(self):
+        """Returns the cleaned values as JSON serializable primitives.
+
+        The session uses the JSON serializer, so model instances and UUIDs
+        cannot be stored as they are.
+        """
+
+        def _pk(value):
+            return str(value.pk) if value else None
+
+        return {
+            # Namespaces the device selection the confirm page keeps in
+            # sessionStorage, which lives as long as the browser tab: without
+            # it a wizard would inherit the devices unselected by a previous
+            # one. It has to be issued here rather than by the browser,
+            # because the session is shared between tabs and sessionStorage
+            # is not. Not a security token: it only scopes a storage key.
+            "token": uuid4().hex,
+            "type": self.cleaned_data["type"],
+            "label": self.cleaned_data["label"],
+            "notes": self.cleaned_data.get("notes") or "",
+            "input": self.cleaned_data.get("input"),
+            "organization_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("organization")),
+            "group_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("group")),
+            "location_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("location")),
+        }
+
 
 @admin.register(Credentials)
 class CredentialsAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin, admin.ModelAdmin):
@@ -261,9 +344,74 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 DeviceAdmin.add_reversion_following(follow=["deviceconnection_set"])
 
 
+class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
+    """Turns the device changelist into the selection table of the confirm page.
+
+    Applied on top of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device rather
+    than on top of this module's DeviceAdmin, because other modules replace
+    that registration: openwisp-monitoring unregisters Device and registers
+    its own subclass, which adds the health status column. Building on the
+    registered class means those columns appear here too, along with the
+    select_related and the media they need, without this module knowing
+    which ones exist. See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_admin().
+
+    Filters and search are removed on purpose: the devices are already
+    determined by the targets chosen on the execute page, this table only
+    allows excluding individual devices from that set. Emptying
+    ``list_filter`` and ``search_fields`` is enough for the stock changelist
+    template to render neither, so it can be reused as it is.
+    """
+
+    # DeviceAdmin leaves this as an empty tuple, which ModelAdmin reads as
+    # "link the first column": that would wrap the checkbox in an <a> and
+    # navigate to the device instead of ticking it. Name is the column the
+    # device changelist links anyway.
+    list_display_links = ["name"]
+    list_filter = []
+    search_fields = []
+    actions = None
+    list_per_page = 20
+    ordering = ["name"]
+    change_list_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
+    # django-import-export replaces change_list_template on the instance with
+    # a template of its own, which redefines the object-tools block and so
+    # brings back the "Import", "Export" and "Add device" buttons this page
+    # suppresses. Setting this to None is its documented way of opting out:
+    # ImportExportMixinBase.init_change_list_template() then falls back to
+    # the template set above. Unused when import-export is not installed.
+    import_export_change_list_template = None
+
+    def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
+        super().__init__(model, admin_site)
+        self.devices = devices
+
+    def get_list_display(self, request):
+        # resolved per request instead of being a class attribute: the
+        # attribute would be a snapshot taken when this module is imported,
+        # which can be before another module has replaced the registration
+        return ["select_device"] + list(super().get_list_display(request))
+
+    def get_queryset(self, request):
+        # MultitenantAdminMixin.get_queryset() scopes this to the
+        # organizations managed by the user, independently of list_filter
+        return super().get_queryset(request).filter(pk__in=self.devices)
+
+    @admin.display(description="")
+    def select_device(self, obj):
+        # deliberately without a "name": these checkboxes are never
+        # submitted, execute-command.js mirrors them into the hidden
+        # "excluded" field of the form holding the execute button
+        return format_html(
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="bc-select-device" value="{}" checked>',
+            obj.pk,
+        )
+
+
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
+    # rendered through BatchCommandDeviceAdmin.change_list_template
     confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
+    session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -292,7 +440,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
-    device_commands_per_page = 20
+    device_commands_per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
@@ -345,92 +493,205 @@ def get_urls(self):
             ),
         ] + super().get_urls()
 
-    def execute_command_view(self, request):
-        """Render the first step of the mass command workflow.
-
-        This page only collects command details for now. The preview and
-        confirmation POST flow will be added in a later change.
-        """
+    def _check_add_permission(self, request):
         permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
         if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
             raise PermissionDenied
-        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
+
+    def execute_command_view(self, request):
+        """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
+
+        A valid submission is stored in the session and the user is
+        redirected to the confirm page (Post/Redirect/Get), so that the
+        device table there can be paginated with ordinary GET requests: a
+        pagination link cannot carry the contents of a form.
+        """
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.method == "POST":
+            form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request.POST, request=request)
+            if form.is_valid():
+                request.session[self.session_key] = form.to_session()
+                return redirect(
+                    f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+                )
+        else:
+            form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
             "title": _("Execute mass command"),
-            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "opts": self.opts,
             "form": form,
-            "media": self.media + form.media,
+            # not combined with self.media: ModelAdmin.media loads
+            # jquery.init.js before select2, the opposite of what select2
+            # needs (see BatchCommandExecutionForm.Media)
+            "media": form.media,
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
         return TemplateResponse(request, self.execute_command_template, context)
 
     def confirm_command_view(self, request):
-        """Render the second step of the mass command workflow.
+        """Second step: review the targeted devices and dispatch the command.
 
-        Displays a summary of the command to be executed and provides
-        an Execute button to create the BatchCommand.
+        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone, never by looking
+        for a field in the request body.
         """
-        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
-        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
-            raise PermissionDenied
-        command_type = request.GET.get("type", "")
-        label = request.GET.get("label", "")
-        notes = request.GET.get("notes", "")
-        organization_id = request.GET.get("organization", "")
-        group_id = request.GET.get("group", "")
-        location_id = request.GET.get("location", "")
-        device_ids = request.GET.getlist("devices")
-
-        command_type_display = command_type
-        command_description = ""
-        for choice_value, choice_label in BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices:
-            if choice_value == command_type:
-                command_type_display = choice_label
-                break
-
-        targets_parts = []
-        if organization_id:
-            Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
-            try:
-                org = Organization.objects.get(pk=organization_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(org))
-            except Organization.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        if group_id:
-            DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
-            try:
-                group = DeviceGroup.objects.get(pk=group_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(group))
-            except DeviceGroup.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        if location_id:
-            Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
-            try:
-                location = Location.objects.get(pk=location_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(location))
-            except Location.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        targets_display = (
-            ", ".join(targets_parts) if targets_parts else _("All devices")
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.method == "POST":
+            return self._execute_batch_command(request)
+        wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
+        if not wizard:
+            return self._restart(request)
+        devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        device_admin = self.get_device_admin(devices)
+        # changelist_view() assembles the whole changelist context (cl,
+        # media, pagination) and renders the change_list_template of the
+        # mixin, which is the confirm page extending the stock changelist
+        # template
+        return device_admin.changelist_view(
+            request, extra_context=self._confirm_context(request, wizard, devices)
         )
 
-        device_count = len(device_ids) if device_ids else 0
-        skipped_devices_count = 0
+    def get_device_admin(self, devices):
+        """Builds the ModelAdmin rendering the device table of the confirm page.
+
+        Composed with the ModelAdmin currently registered for Device instead
+        of a named class, so that the table shows the columns of the device
+        changelist as it actually is. Modules layered on top of the
+        controller replace that registration rather than extending the class
+        this module imports: openwisp-monitoring, for one, unregisters Device
+        and registers a subclass adding the health status column.
+
+        Resolved here, per request, rather than at import time: every app has
+        finished loading by now, so the registration is final. Nothing is
+        imported from those modules and none of them needs to know about this
+        page; with none of them installed this returns the controller's own
+        Device admin and the table is unchanged.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
+        # registered admin's
+        device_admin_class = type(
+            "BatchCommandDeviceAdmin",
+            (BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin, registered),
+            {},
+        )
+        return device_admin_class(Device, self.admin_site, devices=devices)
 
-        context = {
-            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+    def get_device_changelist_template(self):
+        """The template the registered Device admin renders its changelist with.
+
+        The confirm page extends it instead of the stock changelist template,
+        because that is where other modules load the assets their columns
+        need: openwisp-monitoring pulls in the stylesheet drawing the health
+        status accordion, and the script expanding it, from there.
+
+        Read from the class rather than from an instance, since
+        django-import-export rewrites the attribute on the instance.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
+            "admin/change_list.html"
+        )
+
+    def _restart(self, request):
+        """Sends the user back to step one when there is no wizard to show."""
+        messages.warning(
+            request, _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue.")
+        )
+        return redirect(f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_execute")
+
+    def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
+        """Devices matched by the organization, group and location chosen.
+
+        ``distinct()`` and an explicit ordering are required because this
+        queryset is paginated: the devicelocation join can return the same
+        device more than once, and page boundaries are undefined without an
+        ordering.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        qs = Device.objects.all()
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
+        if wizard.get("organization_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id=wizard["organization_id"])
+        if wizard.get("group_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(group_id=wizard["group_id"])
+        if wizard.get("location_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location_id=wizard["location_id"])
+        return qs.distinct().order_by("name")
+
+    def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
+        targets = []
+        for app_label, model_name, key in (
+            ("openwisp_users", "Organization", "organization_id"),
+            ("config", "DeviceGroup", "group_id"),
+            ("geo", "Location", "location_id"),
+        ):
+            if not wizard.get(key):
+                continue
+            model = swapper.load_model(app_label, model_name)
+            target = model.objects.filter(pk=wizard[key]).first()
+            if target:
+                targets.append(str(target))
+        command_types = dict(BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices)
+        return {
             "title": _("Review mass command"),
-            "opts": self.model._meta,
-            "command_type_display": command_type_display,
-            "command_description": command_description,
-            "targets_display": targets_display,
-            "device_count": device_count,
-            "skipped_devices_count": skipped_devices_count,
-            "media": self.media,
+            "batch_opts": self.opts,
+            # the template this page extends, see get_device_changelist_template()
+            "device_changelist_template": self.get_device_changelist_template(),
+            "wizard": wizard,
+            "command_type_display": command_types.get(wizard["type"], wizard["type"]),
+            "command_description": (wizard.get("input") or {}).get("command", ""),
+            "targets_display": ", ".join(targets) if targets else _("All devices"),
+            "device_count": devices.count(),
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
-        return TemplateResponse(request, self.confirm_command_template, context)
+
+    def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
+        """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
+
+        The wizard is popped from the session before anything else happens,
+        so that a double submit cannot create the batch twice: the second
+        request finds nothing and is sent back to step one.
+        """
+        wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
+        if not wizard:
+            return self._restart(request)
+        devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        # The confirm page only lists the devices matched on the execute
+        # page, so the selection can only ever remove from that set: the
+        # browser never supplies a device to add.
+        excluded = self._get_pk_list(request.POST, "excluded")
+        selection = devices.exclude(pk__in=excluded)
+        kwargs = {
+            "type": wizard["type"],
+            "label": wizard["label"],
+            "input": wizard.get("input"),
+            "notes": wizard.get("notes") or "",
+            "organization_id": wizard.get("organization_id"),
+            "group_id": wizard.get("group_id"),
+            "location_id": wizard.get("location_id"),
+            "devices": list(selection.distinct()),
+        }
+        try:
+            batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
+        except ValidationError as error:
+            # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
+            request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
+            messages.error(request, error.messages[0])
+            return redirect(
+                f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+            )
+        messages.success(request, _("Mass command executed successfully."))
+        return redirect(
+            f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
+        )
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _get_pk_list(source, name):
+        return [pk for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",") if pk]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
@@ -596,15 +857,48 @@ def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choic
             return None
         return SimpleNamespace(title=title, choices=choices)
 
-    def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
+    @staticmethod
+    def _command_row(command):
+        return {
+            "device_name": command.device.name,
+            "device_pk": command.device.pk,
+            "status": command.status,
+            "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
+            "output": (command.output or "").lstrip(),
+            "created": command.created,
+            "is_skipped": False,
+        }
+
+    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
+        """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
+
+        Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
+        which is the order they were fanned out in: the newest one is always
+        last. That is what lets the change page append results live without
+        re-fetching, because a new result always belongs on the last page.
+
+        Skipped devices are not Command rows, they are entries of the
+        ``skipped_devices`` field, so they are kept as a (normally short)
+        list and follow the commands.
+        """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
-        paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
-        page_number = page_param or 1
+        commands_count = commands_qs.count()
+        total = commands_count + len(skipped_rows)
+        paginator = Paginator(range(total), per_page)
         try:
-            page_obj = paginator.page(page_number)
+            page_obj = paginator.page(page_param or 1)
         except (PageNotAnInteger, EmptyPage):
             page_obj = paginator.page(1)
-        return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
+        start = (page_obj.number - 1) * per_page
+        end = start + per_page
+        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
+        rows = [
+            self._command_row(command) for command in commands_qs[start:commands_end]
+        ]
+        skipped_start = max(0, start - commands_count)
+        skipped_end = max(0, end - commands_count)
+        rows += skipped_rows[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        return page_obj, paginator, rows
 
     def _get_active_filters(self, request):
         return {
@@ -681,26 +975,11 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
             commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
-            rows = [
-                {
-                    "device_name": cmd.device.name,
-                    "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
-                    "status": cmd.status,
-                    "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
-                    "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
-                    "created": cmd.created,
-                    "is_skipped": False,
-                }
-                for cmd in commands_qs
-            ]
+            skipped_rows = []
             if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
-                rows.extend(self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters))
-            # Sort by status priority: success(0) > failed(1) > skipped(2), then alphabetically
-            rows.sort(
-                key=lambda r: (
-                    {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}.get(r["status"], 99),
-                    r["device_name"].lower(),
-                )
+                skipped_rows = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
+            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
+                commands_qs, skipped_rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
@@ -710,9 +989,6 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                 current_group=filters["group_id"],
                 current_org=filters["organization_id"],
             )
-            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
-                rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
-            )
             extra_context.update(
                 {
                     "commands": commands,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
index e776def03..37c4280cd 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
@@ -15,6 +15,19 @@
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
+def command_to_batch_payload(command):
+    """Serialize a Command into the payload used for batch-command websocket messages.
+
+    Shared by the batch-command signal receiver and the batch-command consumer so
+    real-time messages and the initial ``request_current_state`` reply use the same
+    shape (including the extra fields the admin table needs to render a row).
+    """
+    data = CommandSerializer(command).data
+    data["device_name"] = command.device.name
+    data["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+    return data
+
+
 class ValidatedDeviceFieldSerializer(ValidatedModelSerializer):
     def validate(self, data):
         # Add "device_id" to the data for validation
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index f67e326d0..1abc5cca9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -8,9 +8,10 @@
 from openwisp_notifications.types import register_notification_type
 from swapper import get_model_name, load_model
 
-from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_subitem
+from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_group, register_menu_subitem
 
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
+from .settings import BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
 
@@ -37,6 +38,7 @@ def ready(self):
         Config = load_model("config", "Config")
         Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
         Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
         config_modified.connect(
             self.config_modified_receiver, dispatch_uid="connection.update_config"
@@ -61,6 +63,11 @@ def ready(self):
             sender=Command,
             dispatch_uid="command_save_handler",
         )
+        post_save.connect(
+            self.batch_command_save_receiver,
+            sender=BatchCommand,
+            dispatch_uid="batch_command_save_handler",
+        )
 
     @classmethod
     def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
@@ -68,16 +75,53 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
 
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
+        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
-        if created:
-            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
-            return
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+        if not created:
+            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
+            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+                f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
+                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
+            )
+        if instance.batch_command_id:
+            batch_data = command_to_batch_payload(instance)
+            # Authoritative counts, recomputed fresh on every send rather than
+            # relying on the client to increment a running total (a missed
+            # or duplicate message would otherwise desync it permanently).
+            batch = instance.batch_command
+            affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+            # the table also paginates the skipped devices, which are not
+            # Command rows: without them the client computes too few pages
+            # and the last one becomes unreachable
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                batch.skipped_devices or {}
+            )
+            if created:
+                # Results are ordered by creation, so a new one is always the
+                # last: its index is the count minus one. Only new results
+                # carry a page, a status change is not a new row and must not
+                # be drawn anywhere it is not already displayed.
+                batch_data["page"] = (
+                    affected_devices - 1
+                ) // BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE + 1
+            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
+                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": batch_data},
+            )
+
+    @classmethod
+    def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
+        from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
+
+        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
+        serialized_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
+        serialized_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-            f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
+            f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
+            {"type": "send.update", "model": "BatchCommand", "data": serialized_data},
         )
 
     @classmethod
@@ -188,3 +232,24 @@ def register_menu_groups(self):
                 "icon": "ow-access-credential",
             },
         )
+        register_menu_group(
+            position=35,
+            config={
+                "label": _("Network Operations"),
+                "icon": "ow-build",
+                "items": {
+                    1: {
+                        "label": _("Mass command admin"),
+                        "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
+                        "name": "changelist",
+                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                    },
+                    2: {
+                        "label": _("Mass command execute"),
+                        "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
+                        "name": "execute",
+                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 20bc3d642..8ec4f79b2 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -974,11 +974,8 @@ def create_commands(self):
                 batch_command=self,
             )
             try:
-                # Validate before the atomic block so errors like
-                # ValidationError don't create/rollback
                 command.full_clean()
-                with transaction.atomic():
-                    command.save()
+                command.save()
             except ValidationError as e:
                 self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = (
                     e.messages if hasattr(e, "messages") else [str(e)]
@@ -1008,52 +1005,50 @@ def calculate_and_update_status(self):
         - All commands completed successfully: status set to "success".
         - Status unchanged: no database write performed.
         """
-        with transaction.atomic():
-            batch = self.__class__.objects.select_for_update().get(pk=self.pk)
-            stats = batch.batch_commands.aggregate(
-                total_operations=models.Count("id"),
-                in_progress=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="in-progress", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                completed=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(~models.Q(status="in-progress"), then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                successful=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="success", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                failed=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="failed", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-            )
-            if stats["total_operations"] == 0:
-                if batch.skipped_devices:
-                    new_status = "failed"
-                else:
-                    new_status = "idle"
-            elif stats["in_progress"] > 0:
-                new_status = "in-progress"
-            elif stats["failed"] > 0:
+        batch = self.__class__.objects.get(pk=self.pk)
+        stats = batch.batch_commands.aggregate(
+            total_operations=models.Count("id"),
+            in_progress=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="in-progress", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            completed=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(~models.Q(status="in-progress"), then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            successful=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="success", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            failed=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="failed", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+        )
+        if stats["total_operations"] == 0:
+            if batch.skipped_devices:
                 new_status = "failed"
-            elif (
-                stats["successful"] > 0
-                and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]
-            ):
-                if batch.skipped_devices:
-                    new_status = "failed"
-                else:
-                    new_status = "success"
-            if batch.status != new_status:
-                batch.status = new_status
-                batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
+            else:
+                new_status = "idle"
+        elif stats["in_progress"] > 0:
+            new_status = "in-progress"
+        elif stats["failed"] > 0:
+            new_status = "failed"
+        elif (
+            stats["successful"] > 0 and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]
+        ):
+            if batch.skipped_devices:
+                new_status = "failed"
+            else:
+                new_status = "success"
+        if batch.status != new_status:
+            batch.status = new_status
+            batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 7b4955c47..a695494ab 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -4,8 +4,10 @@
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
+from .. import settings as app_settings
 
 Device = load_model("config", "Device")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class CommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
@@ -13,3 +15,91 @@ def send_update(self, event):
         data = deepcopy(event)
         data.pop("type")
         self.send(json.dumps(data))
+
+
+class BatchCommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
+    model = BatchCommand
+    channel_layer_group = "config.batchcommand"
+
+    def connect(self):
+        # ensure the user can only access the batch command if they
+        # can view the organization it belongs to
+        pk = self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
+        user = self.scope["user"]
+        batch = (
+            BatchCommand.objects.select_related("organization").filter(pk=pk).first()
+        )
+        if not batch:
+            self.close()
+            return
+        if not user.is_superuser and not (
+            batch.organization_id
+            and user.organizations_managed.filter(pk=batch.organization_id).exists()
+        ):
+            self.close()
+            return
+        super().connect()
+
+    def send_update(self, event):
+        data = deepcopy(event)
+        data.pop("type")
+        self.send(json.dumps(data))
+
+    per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+
+    def receive(self, text_data):
+        try:
+            content = json.loads(text_data)
+        except ValueError:
+            return
+        if content.get("type") == "request_current_state":
+            self._handle_current_state_request(content.get("page"))
+
+    def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
+        """Reply with the state of the page the client is showing.
+
+        The client requests this once on websocket open (and on every
+        reconnect) so the table can be reconciled even for commands created
+        while the page was closed or before the socket connected.
+
+        Only the requested page is sent: a mass command can target thousands
+        of devices, and serializing all of them (including their output) on
+        every connect would make the payload grow without bound.
+        """
+        # Imported here instead of at module import time to avoid
+        # AppRegistryNotReady errors.
+        from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.filter(
+            pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
+        ).first()
+        if not batch:
+            return
+        affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
+        batch_data["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
+        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        try:
+            page = max(int(page), 1)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+            page = 1
+        start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
+        end = start + self.per_page
+        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
+        commands = [command_to_batch_payload(command) for command in page_commands]
+        self.send(
+            json.dumps(
+                {
+                    "model": "BatchState",
+                    "data": {
+                        "batch_status": batch_data,
+                        "commands": commands,
+                        "page": page,
+                        # the table paginates the skipped devices too, they
+                        # are not Command rows
+                        "total_rows": affected_devices
+                        + len(batch.skipped_devices or {}),
+                    },
+                }
+            )
+        )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
index 2012b86b2..7b8afad04 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
@@ -8,5 +8,9 @@ def get_routes(consumer=ow_consumer):
         path(
             "ws/controller/device/<uuid:pk>/command",
             consumer.CommandConsumer.as_asgi(),
-        )
+        ),
+        path(
+            "ws/controller/batch-command/<uuid:pk>",
+            consumer.BatchCommandConsumer.as_asgi(),
+        ),
     ]
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
index 50223a137..d28cfdc5d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
@@ -35,6 +35,14 @@
     },
 )
 
+# How many results are listed per page on the mass command change page.
+# Shared by the admin, which paginates with it, and by the websocket layer,
+# which tells the browser the page a new result belongs to: the two have to
+# agree or results are drawn on the wrong page.
+BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE = getattr(
+    settings, "OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE", 20
+)
+
 SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT", 2)
 SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT", 60)
 SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT", 30)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 3e3a4c5b4..749070dd7 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -129,10 +129,6 @@
   padding: 0;
 }
 
-#content-main {
-  margin: 20px;
-}
-
 /* Adjustments for list filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
@@ -148,50 +144,21 @@
 }
 
 /* ================================================================
-   EXECUTION PAGE — Step 1 of 2
+   STEPPER
    ================================================================ */
 
-.batch-command-execution {
-  max-width: 80rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Heading ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading {
-  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
-  font-size: 1.625rem;
-  font-weight: 600;
-  margin: 0 0 0.25rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading p {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.9375rem;
-  margin: 0;
-}
+.stepper {
+  --step-active-bg: var(--ow-color-primary);
+  --step-active-text: var(--ow-color-white);
+  --step-active-highlight: var(--ow-color-primary-light);
+  --step-active-tint: var(--ow-color-primary-lighter);
+  --step-active-underline: var(--ow-color-primary);
 
-/* ── Stepper ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+  --step-inactive-bg: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
+  --step-inactive-text: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
 
-.stepper {
-  --stepper-bg: #ffffff;
-  --stepper-border: #e2e8f0;
-  --stepper-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05), 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);
-  --stepper-radius: 9999px;
-
-  --step-active-bg: #0d7377;
-  --step-active-text: #ffffff;
-  --step-active-highlight: #d5f1ea;
-  --step-active-tint: #f0faf6;
-  --step-active-underline: #0d7377;
-
-  --step-inactive-bg: #e8eaed;
-  --step-inactive-text: #9aa0a6;
-
-  --divider-color: #e2e8f0;
-  --arrow-color: #9aa0a6;
+  --divider-color: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
+  --arrow-color: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
   display: inline-flex;
   align-items: stretch;
   overflow: hidden;
@@ -282,399 +249,51 @@
   width: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ── Cards ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-card {
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 1rem;
-  box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.04);
-  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
-  overflow: hidden;
-}
-
-.bce-card__header {
-  padding: 1.5rem 2rem 0;
-}
-
-.bce-card__header-row {
-  align-items: flex-start;
-  display: flex;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-}
-
-.bce-card__title {
-  font-size: 1.125rem;
-  font-weight: 600;
-  margin: 0 0 0.2rem;
-}
-
-.bce-card__subtitle {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-card__muted {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  white-space: nowrap;
-}
-
-.bce-card__body {
-  padding: 1.25rem 2rem 2rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Form fields inside cards ───────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-field {
-  margin-bottom: 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field:last-child {
-  margin-bottom: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-field label,
-.bce-field > div > label {
-  display: block;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin-bottom: 0.4rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field select,
-.bce-field textarea,
-.bce-field input[type="text"],
-.bce-field input[type="number"],
-.bce-field input[type="password"] {
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #d0d5dd;
-  border-radius: 0.5rem;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  max-width: 100%;
-  padding: 0.625rem 0.875rem;
-  transition:
-    border-color 0.15s ease,
-    box-shadow 0.15s ease;
-  width: 100%;
-}
-
-.bce-field select:focus,
-.bce-field textarea:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="text"]:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="number"]:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="password"]:focus {
-  border-color: var(--step-active-bg);
-  box-shadow: 0 0 0 3px rgba(13, 115, 119, 0.12);
-  outline: none;
-}
-
-.bce-field select[multiple] {
-  min-height: 8rem;
-  padding: 0.5rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field .help {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  margin-top: 0.35rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field .errors {
-  list-style: none;
-  margin: 0.25rem 0 0;
-  padding: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-field .errors li {
-  color: var(--error-fg);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field-grid {
-  display: grid;
-  gap: 1.25rem;
-  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;
-}
-
-/* ── Warning banner ─────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-warning {
-  align-items: flex-start;
-  background: #fffbeb;
-  border: 1px solid #fde68a;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  color: #92400e;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  margin: 0 2rem 1.5rem;
-  padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-warning svg {
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-  height: 1.25rem;
-  margin-top: 0.1rem;
-  width: 1.25rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Device summary banner ──────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-device-summary {
-  align-items: center;
-  background: #eff6ff;
-  border: 1px solid #bfdbfe;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  color: #1e40af;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-  padding: 0.875rem 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-device-summary__live {
-  align-items: center;
-  color: #6b7280;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  font-weight: 400;
-  gap: 0.4rem;
-}
-
-.bce-device-summary__dot {
-  background: #22c55e;
-  border-radius: 50%;
-  display: inline-block;
-  height: 6px;
-  width: 6px;
-}
-
-/* ── Submit row ──────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions {
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  justify-content: flex-end;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions .cancel-link {
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions button[disabled] {
-  cursor: not-allowed;
-  opacity: 0.5;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__form > .help {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  margin: 0.75rem 0 0;
-  text-align: right;
-}
-
 /* ================================================================
-   CONFIRM / REVIEW PAGE — Step 2 of 2
+   CONFIRM PAGE
    ================================================================ */
 
-/* ── Completed stepper step ─────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge {
-  background-color: #059669;
-  color: #ffffff;
-}
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge::before {
-  display: none;
-}
-
-.stepper__check {
-  display: block;
-  height: 1rem;
-  width: 1rem;
-}
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__label-text {
-  color: #059669;
-  font-weight: 600;
-}
-
-/* ── Edit link ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-card__edit-link {
-  align-items: center;
-  color: var(--step-active-bg);
-  display: inline-flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  gap: 0.35rem;
-  text-decoration: none;
-}
-
-.bce-card__edit-link:hover {
-  text-decoration: underline;
-}
-
-.bce-card__edit-link svg {
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-}
-
-/* ── Summary definition list ────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-summary {
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__row {
-  align-items: baseline;
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 1rem;
-  padding: 0.75rem 0;
-}
+/* The device table on the confirm page is the stock admin changelist,
+   only the surrounding chrome is styled here. */
 
-.bcr-summary__row + .bcr-summary__row {
-  border-top: 1px solid #f1f5f9;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__label {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 400;
-  min-width: 8rem;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value {
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value strong {
-  font-weight: 700;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value--warning {
-  color: #d97706;
-  font-weight: 600;
+/* the stepper and the summary sit outside #content-main, so they do not
+   inherit its spacing */
+.confirm-batch-command .stepper {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-summary__badge {
-  background: #f1f5f9;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 0.375rem;
-  display: inline-block;
-  font-family: ui-monospace, SFMono-Regular, "SF Mono", Menlo, Consolas, monospace;
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  padding: 0.15rem 0.5rem;
+.bc-summary {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-summary__desc {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-weight: 400;
-  margin-left: 0.35rem;
+.bc-summary .form-row {
+  padding: 8px 12px;
 }
 
-/* ── Affected devices placeholder ───────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-devices-placeholder {
-  min-height: 6rem;
+/* heading above the device table: only the caption bar, the table follows it
+   as a separate block */
+.bc-devices-heading {
+  margin-bottom: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ── Sticky action bar ──────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-action-bar {
-  align-items: center;
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  bottom: 1.5rem;
-  box-shadow:
-    0 4px 6px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07),
-    0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 1.5rem;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-  padding: 1rem 1.5rem;
-  position: sticky;
-  z-index: 10;
+.confirm-batch-command #changelist {
+  margin-top: 0;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__summary {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+/* no admin actions on this changelist, so the row would be empty */
+.confirm-batch-command #changelist .actions {
+  display: none;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__summary strong {
-  color: var(--body-fg);
-  font-weight: 600;
+/* the checkbox column: not a link, so it renders as a plain cell */
+.confirm-batch-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
+.confirm-batch-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
+  text-align: center;
+  width: 2rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__actions {
-  align-items: center;
+.bc-execute-form .submit-row {
   display: flex;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-}
-
-/* ── Responsive ─────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-@media (max-width: 767px) {
-  .batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
-    font-size: 1.375rem;
-  }
-
-  .bce-card__header {
-    padding: 1.25rem 1.25rem 0;
-  }
-
-  .bce-card__body {
-    padding: 1rem 1.25rem 1.5rem;
-  }
-
-  .bce-field-grid {
-    grid-template-columns: 1fr;
-  }
-
-  .stepper {
-    max-width: 100%;
-  }
-
-  .stepper__step {
-    padding: 0.75rem 1rem 0.75rem 0;
-  }
-
-  .stepper__label-text {
-    font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-summary__row {
-    flex-direction: column;
-    gap: 0.25rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-summary__label {
-    min-width: 0;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar {
-    flex-direction: column;
-    gap: 1rem;
-    padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar__actions {
-    width: 100%;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar__actions .button {
-    flex: 1;
-  }
+  gap: 0.5rem;
+  justify-content: flex-end;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..65febc09d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,357 @@
+"use strict";
+
+// admin/change_form.html loads the translation catalog, these fallbacks only
+// keep the page working if it ever fails to load
+var gettext =
+  window.gettext ||
+  function (word) {
+    return word;
+  };
+var ngettext =
+  window.ngettext ||
+  function (singular, plural, count) {
+    return count === 1 ? singular : plural;
+  };
+var interpolate =
+  window.interpolate ||
+  function (fmt, args) {
+    return fmt.replace(/%s/g, function () {
+      return args.shift();
+    });
+  };
+
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  if (
+    typeof owControllerApiHost === "undefined" ||
+    typeof batchCommandId === "undefined"
+  ) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(
+    getWebSocketUrl(),
+    null,
+    {
+      debug: false,
+      automaticOpen: false,
+      // The library re-connects if it fails to establish a connection in "timeoutInterval".
+      // On slow internet connections, the default value of "timeoutInterval" will
+      // keep terminating and re-establishing the connection.
+      timeoutInterval: 7000,
+    },
+  );
+  batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("open", function () {
+    requestCurrentState(batchCommandWebSocket);
+  });
+
+  batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("message", function (e) {
+    let data = JSON.parse(e.data);
+    if (data.model === "Command") {
+      handleCommandMessage($, data.data);
+    } else if (data.model === "BatchCommand") {
+      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.data);
+    } else if (data.model === "BatchState") {
+      handleBatchStateMessage($, data.data);
+    }
+  });
+
+  // "automaticOpen: false" above means the socket never connects unless
+  // .open() is called explicitly (mirrors commands.js's initCommandWebSockets).
+  batchCommandWebSocket.open();
+
+  function getWebSocketUrl() {
+    let protocol = getWebSocketProtocol();
+    return `${protocol}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+  }
+
+  function getWebSocketProtocol() {
+    let protocol = "ws://";
+    if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
+      protocol = "wss://";
+    }
+    return protocol;
+  }
+
+  function requestCurrentState(websocket) {
+    if (websocket.readyState === WebSocket.OPEN) {
+      try {
+        websocket.send(
+          JSON.stringify({
+            type: "request_current_state",
+            batch_id: batchCommandId,
+            // only the page being shown is sent back, a mass command can
+            // target thousands of devices
+            page: getCurrentPage(),
+          }),
+        );
+      } catch (error) {
+        console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
+    if (data.batch_status) {
+      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.batch_status);
+    }
+    updateTotals(
+      $,
+      data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
+      data.total_rows,
+    );
+    if (data.commands && Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
+      // These are the results of the page being shown, selected as such by
+      // the server, so they are drawn unconditionally: running them through
+      // the eligibility test used for live messages would reject them, since
+      // an individual result carries no page of its own.
+      data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
+        let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
+        if ($row.length) {
+          updateRow($, $row, command);
+        } else {
+          insertRow($, command);
+        }
+      });
+    }
+  }
+
+  function getActiveStatusFilter() {
+    return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+  }
+
+  function getCurrentPage() {
+    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+  }
+
+  function getPerPage() {
+    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || 20;
+  }
+
+  function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
+    // The totals are updated on every message, whatever happens to the DOM
+    // afterwards. They used to be updated at the end of insertRow(), which
+    // returns early once the page is full, so the counter and the paginator
+    // silently froze as soon as the first page filled up.
+    updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+    renderCommand($, data);
+  }
+
+  function renderCommand($, data) {
+    let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
+    if ($row.length) {
+      updateRow($, $row, data);
+    } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
+      insertRow($, data);
+    }
+    // otherwise the row belongs to another page and is left alone: it will
+    // be rendered by the server when that page is opened
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * The server states the page a result belongs to, and only does so for
+   * results it has just created. Draw it when that is the page being shown
+   * and it still has room, which is what makes the first page stop at "per
+   * page" rows while the paginator keeps growing, without moving the user.
+   *
+   * The page cannot be derived here from the total number of results: the
+   * total describes the whole batch, not the position of this result. A
+   * status change on the third result still arrives with the total of the
+   * batch, and would be placed on the last page instead of being left alone.
+   */
+  function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
+    // with a filter on, the totals pushed over the websocket are unfiltered
+    // and cannot be used to work out page boundaries
+    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if (data.page == null) {
+      // a status change, not a new result: it is either already displayed
+      // or it lives on another page
+      return false;
+    }
+    let renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(
+      ":has(td.empty-results)",
+    ).length;
+    if (renderedRows >= getPerPage()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return data.page === getCurrentPage();
+  }
+
+  function updateRow($, $row, data) {
+    let activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter();
+    if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
+      // the row no longer matches the filter the page was rendered with
+      $row.remove();
+      return;
+    }
+    let $status = $row.find(".command-status");
+    $status
+      .removeClass()
+      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+      .text(data.status_display);
+    $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
+    $row.find("td:last-child").text(formatTimestamp(data.created));
+  }
+
+  // Only draws the row: whether it should be drawn at all is decided by
+  // belongsOnCurrentPage(), and the totals are updated independently.
+  function insertRow($, data) {
+    // remove the "No commands found." empty state
+    $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
+    let $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
+    let rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
+    let $row = $("<tr>").attr({
+      id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
+      "data-device-pk": data.device,
+      class: rowClass,
+    });
+    let $deviceTd = $("<td>").append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr({ href: getDeviceChangeUrl(data.device), class: "device-link" })
+        .text(data.device_name),
+    );
+    $row.append($deviceTd);
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<span>")
+          .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+          .text(data.status_display),
+      ),
+    );
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>")
+        .addClass("command-output")
+        .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
+    );
+    $row.append($("<td>").text(formatTimestamp(data.created)));
+    $tableBody.append($row);
+  }
+
+  function getDeviceChangeUrl(devicePk) {
+    let template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
+    if (!template) {
+      return "#";
+    }
+    return template.replace("00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000", devicePk);
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * "affected_devices" counts Command rows, "total_rows" also counts the
+   * skipped devices the table paginates alongside them. They are two
+   * different numbers and drive two different things: passing one for both
+   * makes the page count too small and the last page unreachable whenever a
+   * device was skipped.
+   *
+   * Both are authoritative values recomputed server side on every send,
+   * never a client tracked delta, so a missed or duplicate message cannot
+   * desync them permanently.
+   */
+  function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
+    if (affectedDevices != null) {
+      let $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
+      if ($affected.length) {
+        $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
+      }
+    }
+    if (totalRows == null) {
+      return;
+    }
+    // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
+    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
+      return;
+    }
+    let $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
+    if ($paginator.length) {
+      $paginator.text(
+        interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [
+          totalRows,
+        ]),
+      );
+    }
+    renderPagination($, totalRows);
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * Rebuilt from scratch rather than patched, so there is a single code
+   * path whether or not the widget was rendered by the server. Patching
+   * only the "Page X of Y" label used to leave the last page without a
+   * "Next" link: at "3 of 3" growing to "3 of 5" the label changed but
+   * there was still no way to move forward.
+   *
+   * This only touches the pagination widget, never the rows: the user is
+   * never navigated automatically, and no page is ever re-fetched.
+   */
+  function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
+    let currentPage = getCurrentPage();
+    let perPage = getPerPage();
+    let totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
+    $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
+    if (totalPages <= 1) {
+      return;
+    }
+    let pageLabel =
+      gettext("Page") +
+      " " +
+      currentPage +
+      " " +
+      gettext("of") +
+      " " +
+      totalPages;
+    let params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+    params.delete("page");
+    let baseQuery = params.toString();
+    let buildHref = function (page) {
+      return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
+    };
+    let $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
+    if (currentPage > 1) {
+      $stepLinks.append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
+          .text(gettext("Previous")),
+      );
+    }
+    $stepLinks.append($("<span>").addClass("current-page").text(pageLabel));
+    if (currentPage < totalPages) {
+      $stepLinks.append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
+          .text(gettext("Next")),
+      );
+    }
+    $("<div>")
+      .addClass("pagination")
+      .append($stepLinks)
+      .appendTo(".results-container");
+  }
+
+  function handleBatchCommandMessage($, data) {
+    let $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
+    if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
+      $status
+        .removeClass()
+        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+        .text(data.status_display);
+    }
+    if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
+      let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+      if ($list.length) {
+        let $first = $list.contents().first();
+        if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
+          $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  function formatTimestamp(iso) {
+    if (!iso) {
+      return "-";
+    }
+    let date = new Date(iso);
+    if (isNaN(date.getTime())) {
+      return "-";
+    }
+    return date.toLocaleString();
+  }
+});
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index b832a5009..320f88f32 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,157 +1,381 @@
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
   "use strict";
 
-  var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-  var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+  // Both steps of the mass command workflow load this file. Each section
+  // returns early when the element it is anchored to is missing, so only
+  // the one belonging to the current page does anything.
+  initExecuteCommandForm($);
+  initConfirmCommandSelection($);
 
-  var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
-  if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+  // Execute command js
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
 
-  var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-  var $container = $("#command-input-container");
-  var fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
-  var $hiddenInput;
+  function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
+    var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+    var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
 
-  function ensureHiddenInput() {
-    $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
-    if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-      $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-      $form.append($hiddenInput);
+    var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+    if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+
+    var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+    var $container = $("#command-input-container");
+    var fieldName = $("#id_input").length
+      ? $("#id_input").attr("name")
+      : "input";
+    var $hiddenInput;
+
+    function ensureHiddenInput() {
+      $hiddenInput = $form.find(
+        'input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]',
+      );
+      if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+        $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+        $form.append($hiddenInput);
+      }
     }
-  }
 
-  function clearContainer() {
-    $container.empty();
-  }
+    function clearContainer() {
+      $container.empty();
+    }
 
-  function syncCustom() {
-    var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-    val = $.trim(val);
-    $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
-  }
+    function syncCustom() {
+      var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+      val = $.trim(val);
+      $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+    }
 
-  function syncPassword() {
-    var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
-    var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
-    $hiddenInput.val(
-      pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
-    );
-  }
+    function syncPassword() {
+      var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
+      var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
+      $hiddenInput.val(
+        pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+      );
+    }
 
-  function buildCustomField() {
-    var $wrapper = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $wrapper.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-command">Command</label>');
-    $wrapper.append(
-      '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
-        fieldName +
-        '" placeholder="e.g. uptime" class="vTextField">',
-    );
-    $wrapper.append(
-      '<div class="help">Enter the shell command to run on all devices</div>',
-    );
-    $container.append($wrapper);
-  }
+    function buildCustomField() {
+      var $wrapper = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $fc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $fc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-command" class="required">' +
+          gettext("Command") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $fc.append(
+        '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
+          fieldName +
+          '" class="vTextField">',
+      );
+      $wrapper.append($fc);
+      $wrapper.append(
+        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-command_helptext"><div>' +
+          gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
+          "</div></div>",
+      );
+      $container.append($wrapper);
+    }
 
-  function buildChangePasswordField() {
-    var $grid = $('<div class="bce-field-grid"></div>');
+    function buildChangePasswordField() {
+      var $pwRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $pwFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $pwFc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-password" class="required">' +
+          gettext("New password") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $pwFc.append(
+        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+      );
+      $pwRow.append($pwFc);
+      $pwRow.append(
+        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-password_helptext"><div>' +
+          gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
+          "</div></div>",
+      );
+      $container.append($pwRow);
 
-    var $pwField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $pwField.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-password">New password</label>');
-    $pwField.append(
-      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-    );
-    $grid.append($pwField);
+      var $cpRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $cpFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $cpFc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" class="required">' +
+          gettext("Confirm password") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $cpFc.append(
+        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+      );
+      $cpRow.append($cpFc);
+      $container.append($cpRow);
+    }
 
-    var $cpField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $cpField.append(
-      '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password">Confirm password</label>',
-    );
-    $cpField.append(
-      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-    );
-    $grid.append($cpField);
+    function onTypeChange() {
+      var selected = $typeSelect.val();
+      clearContainer();
+
+      if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+        buildCustomField();
+        syncCustom();
+      } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+        buildChangePasswordField();
+        syncPassword();
+      } else {
+        $hiddenInput.val("");
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Reaching this page starts a new mass command, so drop the device
+    // selections of any earlier one the user configured but never executed:
+    // they are namespaced per command and would otherwise pile up for as
+    // long as the browser tab lives.
+    discardAbandonedSelections();
 
-    $container.append($grid);
-    $container.append(
-      '<div class="bce-field"><div class="help">Password must be at least 6 characters long</div></div>',
+    ensureHiddenInput();
+    $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
+    $container.on(
+      "input",
+      "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
+      syncPassword,
     );
-  }
+    $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
+    onTypeChange();
 
-  function onTypeChange() {
-    var selected = $typeSelect.val();
-    clearContainer();
+    $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").select2({
+      theme: "default",
+      placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
+      allowClear: true,
+      width: "resolve",
+    });
 
-    if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      buildCustomField();
-      syncCustom();
-    } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      buildChangePasswordField();
-      syncPassword();
-    } else {
-      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    // Admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back to
+    // this page re-fetches it and the browser restores the previous form
+    // values after select2 has already been initialized, leaving the rendered
+    // labels stale. Re-sync the select2 display on every pageshow event.
+    $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
+      $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").each(
+        function () {
+          var $field = $(this);
+          if ($field.data("select2")) $field.trigger("change.select2");
+        },
+      );
+      if ($typeSelect.val()) {
+        onTypeChange();
+        var data = null;
+        try {
+          data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+        } catch (e) {
+          data = null;
+        }
+        if (data && data.command) {
+          $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val(data.command);
+        }
+      }
+    });
+
+    function clearAllErrors() {
+      $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
+      $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
     }
-  }
 
-  ensureHiddenInput();
-  $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
-  $container.on(
-    "input",
-    "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
-    syncPassword,
-  );
-  $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
-  onTypeChange();
-
-  var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
-  if ($reviewBtn.length) {
-    $typeSelect.on("change", function () {
-      $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$(this).val());
-    });
-    $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$typeSelect.val());
+    function showFieldError($row, message) {
+      $row.addClass("errors");
+      $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+    }
 
-    $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
-      var type = $typeSelect.val();
-      if (!type) return;
+    var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
+    if ($reviewBtn.length) {
+      $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
+        clearAllErrors();
 
-      var params = new URLSearchParams();
-      params.append("type", type);
+        var type = $typeSelect.val();
+        var $typeRow = $typeSelect.closest(".form-row");
+        var hasError = false;
 
-      var inputVal = $hiddenInput.val();
-      if (inputVal) {
-        params.append("input", inputVal);
-      }
+        if (!type) {
+          showFieldError($typeRow, gettext("This field is required."));
+          hasError = true;
+        }
+
+        var label = $("#id_label").val();
+        if (!label || !$.trim(label)) {
+          showFieldError(
+            $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
+            gettext("This field is required."),
+          );
+          hasError = true;
+        }
+
+        if (type === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+          var cmd = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+          if (!cmd || !$.trim(cmd)) {
+            showFieldError(
+              $container.find(".form-row").first(),
+              gettext("This field is required."),
+            );
+            hasError = true;
+          }
+        }
 
-      var label = $("#id_label").val();
-      if (label) {
-        params.append("label", label);
+        if (hasError) return;
+
+        $form.submit();
+      });
+    }
+  }
+
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+  // Confirm command js
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+
+  /*
+   * Device selection on the confirm page.
+   *
+   * Every device matched by the targets chosen on the first step starts
+   * selected, unselecting one adds it to the "excluded" list. That list is
+   * kept both in a hidden field, submitted when the command is executed, and
+   * in sessionStorage, because turning the page of the device table is an
+   * ordinary page load: without it, unselecting a device on the first page
+   * would be forgotten as soon as the second page is opened.
+   */
+  var STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
+
+  function discardAbandonedSelections() {
+    try {
+      var storage = window.sessionStorage;
+      for (var i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        var key = storage.key(i);
+        if (key && key.indexOf(STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
+          storage.removeItem(key);
+        }
       }
+    } catch (e) {
+      // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
+    }
+  }
+
+  function initConfirmCommandSelection($) {
+    var $form = $("#bc-execute-form");
+    if (!$form.length) return;
+
+    // Namespaced by the token the server issues for this mass command:
+    // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so a shared key would
+    // make a new command inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
+    var STORAGE_KEY = STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
+    var $table = $("#result_list");
+    var $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
+    var $count = $("#bc-selected-count");
+    var $button = $("#bc-execute-button");
+    var totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
+    var excluded = readStoredExclusions();
 
-      var notes = $("#id_notes").val();
-      if (notes) {
-        params.append("notes", notes);
+    function readStoredExclusions() {
+      var stored = {};
+      try {
+        var raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(STORAGE_KEY);
+        $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
+          stored[pk] = true;
+        });
+      } catch (e) {
+        // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable:
+        // the selection is then simply not carried across pages
       }
+      return stored;
+    }
 
-      var org = $("#id_organization").val();
-      if (org) {
-        params.append("organization", org);
+    function storeExclusions(pks) {
+      try {
+        window.sessionStorage.setItem(STORAGE_KEY, JSON.stringify(pks));
+      } catch (e) {
+        // see readStoredExclusions()
       }
+    }
 
-      var group = $("#id_group").val();
-      if (group) {
-        params.append("group", group);
+    function clearExclusions() {
+      try {
+        window.sessionStorage.removeItem(STORAGE_KEY);
+      } catch (e) {
+        // see readStoredExclusions()
       }
+    }
+
+    // rows are rendered selected by the server, restore the ones which were
+    // unselected on a previously visited page
+    function restoreCheckboxes() {
+      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
+        var $checkbox = $(this);
+        $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
+      });
+    }
+
+    function refresh() {
+      var pks = Object.keys(excluded);
+      var selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
+      $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
+      storeExclusions(pks);
+      $count.text(selected);
+      $button.text(
+        interpolate(
+          ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected),
+          [selected],
+        ),
+      );
+      $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
+      refreshSelectAll();
+    }
 
-      var location = $("#id_location").val();
-      if (location) {
-        params.append("location", location);
+    function refreshSelectAll() {
+      var $checkboxes = $table.find(".bc-select-device");
+      var $checked = $checkboxes.filter(":checked");
+      $("#bc-select-all").prop(
+        "checked",
+        $checkboxes.length > 0 && $checked.length === $checkboxes.length,
+      );
+    }
+
+    // the changelist has no header checkbox of its own once the admin
+    // actions are disabled, so add one for the current page
+    function addSelectAllCheckbox() {
+      var $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
+      if (!$header.length || $header.find("#bc-select-all").length) return;
+      $header.append(
+        $("<input>").attr({
+          type: "checkbox",
+          id: "bc-select-all",
+          title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
+        }),
+      );
+    }
+
+    $table.on("change", ".bc-select-device", function () {
+      var pk = $(this).val();
+      if (this.checked) {
+        delete excluded[pk];
+      } else {
+        excluded[pk] = true;
       }
+      refresh();
+    });
 
-      $("#id_devices option:selected").each(function () {
-        params.append("devices", $(this).val());
+    // only the devices listed on the current page are affected: devices the
+    // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+    $table.on("change", "#bc-select-all", function () {
+      var checked = this.checked;
+      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
+        var $checkbox = $(this);
+        if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
+          $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
+        }
       });
+    });
 
-      var confirmUrl = window.location.href.replace("execute/", "confirm/");
-      window.location.href = confirmUrl.split("?")[0] + "?" + params.toString();
+    $form.on("submit", function () {
+      clearExclusions();
+      // guards against a double click creating two mass commands, the
+      // server discards the second request as well
+      $button.prop("disabled", true);
     });
+
+    addSelectAllCheckbox();
+    restoreCheckboxes();
+    refresh();
   }
 });
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 43ae2a83c..b432c5dee 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -6,6 +6,14 @@
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/changelists.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/ow-filters.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+<script>
+{% if OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_API_HOST %}
+    const owControllerApiHost = new URL('{{ OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_API_HOST }}');
+{% else %}
+    const owControllerApiHost = window.location;
+{% endif %}
+    const batchCommandId = '{{ original.pk }}';
+</script>
 {% endblock %}
 
 {% block content %}
@@ -96,7 +104,11 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 
 <!-- Results Table -->
 <div class="results-container">
-  <table id="result_list" class="results-table">
+  <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
+    data-device-url="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
+    data-active-status="{{ request.GET.status|default:'' }}"
+    data-per-page="{{ paginator.per_page }}"
+    data-current-page="{{ page_obj.number }}">
     <thead>
       <tr>
         <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
@@ -107,7 +119,9 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </thead>
     <tbody>
       {% for command in commands %}
-      <tr class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
+      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device_pk }}"
+          data-device-pk="{{ command.device_pk }}"
+          class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
         <td>
           {% if command.is_skipped %}
           <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
@@ -170,4 +184,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 {% block footer %}
 {{ block.super }}
 <script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/lib/reconnecting-websocket.min.js" %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/batch-command.js" %}"></script>
 {% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index a6975ab80..4105befd7 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -1,155 +1,164 @@
-{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% extends device_changelist_template|default:"admin/change_list.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
+{% comment %}
+Second step of the mass command workflow.
+
+This extends the changelist template of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for
+Device, not the stock one, because that is where other modules load the assets
+their columns need: openwisp-monitoring pulls the stylesheet and the script of
+the health status accordion in from there. The device table, its pagination and
+its styling are then reused as they are, and only the surrounding chrome is
+added here. BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin empties list_filter and search_fields,
+which is enough for the parent template to render neither.
+See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template().
+
+Note the two forms on this page are siblings, never nested: the changelist
+brings its own <form> (which is never submitted, its checkboxes have no name)
+and the execute button lives in a separate one below it.
+{% endcomment %}
+
+{% block extrastyle %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{% comment %}
+The changelist only loads forms.css when it has a formset, but the summary
+below is built out of the same .module.aligned rows the execute page uses and
+needs it for its spacing.
+{% endcomment %}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
 {% block extrahead %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{{ media }}
-<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}" defer></script>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% comment %}
+Suppresses the changelist's "Add Device" button, which has no place on a
+confirmation screen. Overriding the block empty also removes the duplicate: the
+theme declares object-tools twice, in .title-wrapper (admin/base.html) and in
+#content-main (admin/change_list.html), so the default renders at both.
+{% endcomment %}
+{% block object-tools %}{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
 <div class="breadcrumbs">
   <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
-  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
-  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=batch_opts.app_label %}">{{ batch_opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ batch_opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
   &rsaquo; {% trans 'Review mass command' %}
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+{% comment %}
+Everything goes in a single "content" block.
 
+Not "object-tools": the openwisp theme declares that block twice, once inside
+.title-wrapper in admin/base.html and once inside #content-main in
+admin/change_list.html, so overriding it renders the content in both places.
+The same is true of "filters". And a template may only declare a given block
+once, so the stepper, the summary, the device table and the execute button all
+live in this one block.
+{% endcomment %}
 {% block content %}
-<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
-  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
-    <h1>{% trans 'Review mass command' %}</h1>
-    <p>{% trans 'Confirm what will run before execution.' %}</p>
+<nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+    <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+    <span class="stepper__label">
+      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+    </span>
   </div>
+  <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+    <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+    </svg>
+  </div>
+  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+    <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+    <span class="stepper__label">
+      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+    </span>
+  </div>
+</nav>
 
-  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--completed">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">
-        <svg class="stepper__check" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-          <path d="M3.5 8.5L6.5 11.5L12.5 5.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-        </svg>
-      </span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-      </svg>
+<fieldset class="module aligned bc-summary">
+  <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Type' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ command_type_display }}</div>
     </div>
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-  </nav>
-
-  {# ── Summary card ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-card">
-    <div class="bce-card__header">
-      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-        <div>
-          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
-        </div>
-        <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="bce-card__edit-link">
-          <svg viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="14" height="14">
-            <path d="M10.5 3.5L12.5 5.5L5.5 12.5H3.5V10.5L10.5 3.5Z" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-          </svg>
-          {% trans 'Edit' %}
-        </a>
-      </div>
+  </div>
+  {% if command_description %}
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Command' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly"><code>{{ command_description }}</code></div>
     </div>
-    <div class="bce-card__body">
-      <dl class="bcr-summary">
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Command' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
-            <span class="bcr-summary__badge">{{ command_type_display }}</span>
-            {% if command_description %}<span class="bcr-summary__desc">&mdash; {{ command_description }}</span>{% endif %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Targets' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ targets_display }}</dd>
-        </div>
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will run on' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
-            <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        {% if skipped_devices_count %}
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will skip' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value bcr-summary__value--warning">
-            {{ skipped_devices_count }} {% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ request.user }}</dd>
-        </div>
-      </dl>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Label' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ wizard.label }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
-
-  {% if skipped_devices_count %}
-  {# ── Warning banner ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-warning">
-    <svg viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-      <path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M8.257 3.099c.765-1.36 2.722-1.36 3.486 0l5.58 9.92c.75 1.334-.213 2.98-1.742 2.98H4.42c-1.53 0-2.493-1.646-1.743-2.98l5.58-9.92zM11 13a1 1 0 10-2 0 1 1 0 002 0zm-1-8a1 1 0 00-1 1v3a1 1 0 002 0V6a1 1 0 00-1-1z" clip-rule="evenodd"/>
-    </svg>
-    <div>
-      <strong>{% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} device will be skipped{% plural %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} devices will be skipped{% endblocktrans %}</strong>
-      <p>{% trans 'These devices do not match the selected filters or are not available.' %}</p>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Targets' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ targets_display }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
-  {% endif %}
-
-  {# ── Affected devices ──────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-card">
-    <div class="bce-card__header">
-      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-        <div>
-          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
-          <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Devices that will receive this command' %}</p>
-        </div>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">
+        <strong id="bc-selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
       </div>
     </div>
-    <div class="bce-card__body">
-      <div class="bcr-devices-placeholder"></div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "F j, Y, P" %}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
+</fieldset>
+
+{# same .module h2 caption bar as the Summary heading above #}
+<fieldset class="module aligned bc-devices-heading">
+  <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
+</fieldset>
+
+{# the device table, its pagination and its own <form> #}
+{{ block.super }}
 
-  {# ── Sticky action bar ─────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bcr-action-bar">
-    <div class="bcr-action-bar__summary">
-      {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
-      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> device
+{# sibling of the changelist's form, never nested inside it #}
+{% comment %}
+"data-wizard-token" namespaces the sessionStorage entry holding the unselected
+devices. sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so without it a new
+mass command would inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
+{% endcomment %}
+<form method="post" id="bc-execute-form" class="bc-execute-form"
+  data-total-devices="{{ device_count }}"
+  data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
+  {% csrf_token %}
+  <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
+  <div class="submit-row">
+    <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
+    <button type="submit" class="default" id="bc-execute-button">
+      {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
+      Execute on {{ counter }} device
       {% plural %}
-      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> devices
+      Execute on {{ counter }} devices
       {% endblocktrans %}
-    </div>
-    <div class="bcr-action-bar__actions">
-      <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="button">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="button default">
-        {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
-        Execute on {{ device_count }} device
-        {% plural %}
-        Execute on {{ device_count }} devices
-        {% endblocktrans %}
-      </button>
-    </div>
+    </button>
   </div>
-</div>
+</form>
 {% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 851311e37..a0da29fe5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -1,14 +1,26 @@
 {% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
+{% comment %}
+First step of the mass command workflow: collects the command details and the
+targets. A valid submission is stored in the session and redirects to the
+confirm page, where the matched devices can be reviewed.
+{% endcomment %}
+
+{% block extrastyle %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{{ media.css }}
+{% endblock %}
+
 {% block extrahead %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{{ media }}
-<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
-<script src="{% static 'connection/js/execute-command.js' %}"></script>
+<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
+{{ media.js }}
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
 <div class="breadcrumbs">
@@ -19,140 +31,125 @@
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
-
 {% block content %}
-<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
-  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
-    <h1>{% trans 'Execute mass command' %}</h1>
-    <p>{% trans 'Run a shell command across many devices at once' %}</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-      </svg>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-  </nav>
-
-  <form class="batch-command-execution__form" novalidate>
-
-    {# ── Command card ─────────────────────────────────── #}
-    <div class="bce-card">
-      <div class="bce-card__header">
-        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-          <div>
-            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Command' %}</h2>
-            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'What to run on the selected devices' %}</p>
-          </div>
+<div id="content-main">
+  <form method="post" novalidate>
+    {% csrf_token %}
+    <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+        <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label">
+          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+        </span>
+      </div>
+      <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+        <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+          <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+        </svg>
+      </div>
+      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+        <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label">
+          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+        </span>
+      </div>
+    </nav>
+
+    {% if form.non_field_errors %}
+    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors }}</p>
+    {% endif %}
+
+    <fieldset class="module aligned">
+      <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
+      <div class="form-row field-type{% if form.type.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.type.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.type.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.type }}
         </div>
+        {% if form.type.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.type.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.type.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.type.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-      <div class="bce-card__body">
-        {% with field=form.type %}
-        <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-          {{ field.errors }}
-          <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-          {{ field }}
-          {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+      {# execute-command.js renders the fields of the selected command type here #}
+      <div id="command-input-container"></div>
+      {{ form.input }}
+      {% if form.input.errors %}
+      <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
+      {% endif %}
+      <div class="form-row field-label{% if form.label.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.label.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.label.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.label }}
         </div>
-        {% endwith %}
-
-        <div id="command-input-container"></div>
-
-        <div class="bce-field-grid">
-          {% with field=form.label %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.notes %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
+        {% if form.label.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.label.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.label.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.label.help_text }}</div>
         </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-    </div>
-
-    {# ── Targets card ──────────────────────────────────── #}
-    <div class="bce-card">
-      <div class="bce-card__header">
-        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-          <div>
-            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Targets' %}</h2>
-            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Which devices receive this command' %}</p>
-          </div>
-          <span class="bce-card__muted">{% trans 'Filters combine with AND' %}</span>
+      <div class="form-row field-notes{% if form.notes.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.notes.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.notes.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.notes }}
         </div>
+        {% if form.notes.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.notes.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.notes.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.notes.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-      <div class="bce-card__body">
-        <div class="bce-field-grid">
-          {% with field=form.organization %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.location %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.group %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
+    </fieldset>
+
+    <fieldset class="module aligned">
+      <h2>{% trans "Targets" %}</h2>
+      <div class="form-row field-organization{% if form.organization.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.organization.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.organization.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.organization }}
         </div>
-
-        <div class="bce-device-summary">
-          <span>{% trans '12 devices match these filters' %}</span>
-          <span class="bce-device-summary__live">
-            <span class="bce-device-summary__dot"></span>
-            {% trans 'Updated live' %}
-          </span>
+        {% if form.organization.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.organization.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.organization.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.organization.help_text }}</div>
         </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-    </div>
+      <div class="form-row field-location{% if form.location.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.location.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.location.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.location }}
+        </div>
+        {% if form.location.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.location.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.location.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.location.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+      </div>
+      <div class="form-row field-group{% if form.group.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.group.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.group.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.group }}
+        </div>
+        {% if form.group.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.group.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.group.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.group.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+      </div>
+    </fieldset>
 
-    {# ── Hidden submit (kept for form validation) ──────── #}
-    <div class="submit-row batch-command-execution__actions">
-      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans 'Cancel' %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">
-        {% trans 'Review command' %}
-      </button>
+    <div class="submit-row">
+      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans "Cancel" %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
     </div>
   </form>
 </div>

From e66b14795306fad44b8142126fe8671c098bd496 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 14 Aug 2026 07:19:35 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 07/27] [fix] Refactoring

---
 .../connection/api/serializers.py             |  13 --
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  37 ++---
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  95 +++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py    |   8 -
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 147 ++++++------------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |   4 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |  86 +++-------
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |  32 ++--
 9 files changed, 144 insertions(+), 280 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
index 37c4280cd..e776def03 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
@@ -15,19 +15,6 @@
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
-def command_to_batch_payload(command):
-    """Serialize a Command into the payload used for batch-command websocket messages.
-
-    Shared by the batch-command signal receiver and the batch-command consumer so
-    real-time messages and the initial ``request_current_state`` reply use the same
-    shape (including the extra fields the admin table needs to render a row).
-    """
-    data = CommandSerializer(command).data
-    data["device_name"] = command.device.name
-    data["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
-    return data
-
-
 class ValidatedDeviceFieldSerializer(ValidatedModelSerializer):
     def validate(self, data):
         # Add "device_id" to the data for validation
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 1abc5cca9..b739d6513 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -11,7 +11,6 @@
 from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_group, register_menu_subitem
 
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
-from .settings import BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
 
@@ -75,7 +74,7 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
 
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
@@ -86,30 +85,19 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
         if instance.batch_command_id:
-            batch_data = command_to_batch_payload(instance)
-            # Authoritative counts, recomputed fresh on every send rather than
-            # relying on the client to increment a running total (a missed
-            # or duplicate message would otherwise desync it permanently).
+            batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+            batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
+            batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+            batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
             batch = instance.batch_command
-            affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+            affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
             batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            # the table also paginates the skipped devices, which are not
-            # Command rows: without them the client computes too few pages
-            # and the last one becomes unreachable
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
-                batch.skipped_devices or {}
-            )
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = batch.total_devices
             if created:
-                # Results are ordered by creation, so a new one is always the
-                # last: its index is the count minus one. Only new results
-                # carry a page, a status change is not a new row and must not
-                # be drawn anywhere it is not already displayed.
-                batch_data["page"] = (
-                    affected_devices - 1
-                ) // BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE + 1
+                batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
                 f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
-                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": batch_data},
+                {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
             )
 
     @classmethod
@@ -117,11 +105,12 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
-        serialized_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
-        serialized_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
+        batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+        batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
             f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "model": "BatchCommand", "data": serialized_data},
+            {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
         )
 
     @classmethod
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 8ec4f79b2..d6edb8697 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -801,7 +801,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     @cached_property
     def total_devices(self):
-        return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
+        return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
     @cached_property
     def affected_devices(self):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index a695494ab..73e3e760b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -1,10 +1,13 @@
 import json
+import logging
 from copy import deepcopy
 
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
-from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, CommandSerializer
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 Device = load_model("config", "Device")
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
@@ -20,65 +23,52 @@ def send_update(self, event):
 class BatchCommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
     model = BatchCommand
     channel_layer_group = "config.batchcommand"
-
-    def connect(self):
-        # ensure the user can only access the batch command if they
-        # can view the organization it belongs to
-        pk = self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
-        user = self.scope["user"]
-        batch = (
-            BatchCommand.objects.select_related("organization").filter(pk=pk).first()
-        )
-        if not batch:
-            self.close()
-            return
-        if not user.is_superuser and not (
-            batch.organization_id
-            and user.organizations_managed.filter(pk=batch.organization_id).exists()
-        ):
-            self.close()
-            return
-        super().connect()
+    per_page = 20
+    current_state_message = "request_current_state"
 
     def send_update(self, event):
-        data = deepcopy(event)
-        data.pop("type")
-        self.send(json.dumps(data))
+        self.send(json.dumps(event["data"]))
 
-    per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+    def is_user_authorized(self):
+        user = self.scope["user"]
+        if user.is_superuser:
+            return True
+        # a mass command cannot be changed or deleted from the admin
+        if not (
+            user.is_staff and self._user_has_permissions(change=False, delete=False)
+        ):
+            return False
+        organization_id = (
+            self.model.objects.filter(pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"])
+            .values_list("organization_id", flat=True)
+            .first()
+        )
+        return bool(organization_id) and user.is_manager(str(organization_id))
 
     def receive(self, text_data):
         try:
             content = json.loads(text_data)
         except ValueError:
+            logger.warning("Received a websocket message which is not valid JSON")
             return
-        if content.get("type") == "request_current_state":
+        message_type = content.get("type")
+        if message_type == self.current_state_message:
             self._handle_current_state_request(content.get("page"))
+        else:
+            logger.warning(f"Unknown websocket message type received: {message_type}")
 
     def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
-        """Reply with the state of the page the client is showing.
-
-        The client requests this once on websocket open (and on every
-        reconnect) so the table can be reconciled even for commands created
-        while the page was closed or before the socket connected.
-
-        Only the requested page is sent: a mass command can target thousands
-        of devices, and serializing all of them (including their output) on
-        every connect would make the payload grow without bound.
-        """
-        # Imported here instead of at module import time to avoid
-        # AppRegistryNotReady errors.
-        from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+        """Handle request for current state of the operation"""
 
         batch = BatchCommand.objects.filter(
             pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
         ).first()
         if not batch:
+            # deleted after the connection was accepted
             return
-        affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
-        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
-        batch_data["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
-        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        batch_status = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
+        batch_status["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
+        batch_status["affected_devices"] = batch.affected_devices
         try:
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
@@ -86,20 +76,19 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
         page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
-        commands = [command_to_batch_payload(command) for command in page_commands]
+        commands = []
+        for command in page_commands:
+            row = CommandSerializer(command).data
+            row["device_name"] = command.device.name
+            row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+            commands.append(row)
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
                 {
-                    "model": "BatchState",
-                    "data": {
-                        "batch_status": batch_data,
-                        "commands": commands,
-                        "page": page,
-                        # the table paginates the skipped devices too, they
-                        # are not Command rows
-                        "total_rows": affected_devices
-                        + len(batch.skipped_devices or {}),
-                    },
+                    "type": "batch_state",
+                    "batch_status": batch_status,
+                    "commands": commands,
+                    "total_rows": batch.total_devices,
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
index d28cfdc5d..50223a137 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
@@ -35,14 +35,6 @@
     },
 )
 
-# How many results are listed per page on the mass command change page.
-# Shared by the admin, which paginates with it, and by the websocket layer,
-# which tells the browser the page a new result belongs to: the two have to
-# agree or results are drawn on the wrong page.
-BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE = getattr(
-    settings, "OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE", 20
-)
-
 SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT", 2)
 SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT", 60)
 SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT", 30)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 749070dd7..b3aa607a5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -1,23 +1,20 @@
+/* ==== Mass Command Change Page CSS ==== */
 #batchcommand_form .submit-row {
   display: none;
 }
-
 .commands-title {
   font-size: 22px;
   font-weight: 300;
   margin: 0;
   padding: 0;
 }
-
 .search-section {
   padding: 20px;
 }
-
 .search-form {
   display: flex;
   align-items: center;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-icon {
   width: 20px;
   height: 20px;
@@ -25,92 +22,89 @@
   font-size: 16px;
   margin-top: -3px;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-input {
   padding: 10px 15px;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-button {
   padding: 10px 20px;
   margin-left: 15px;
 }
-
 .filter-clear-link:hover {
   color: var(--ow-color-fg-darker);
 }
-
 .results-table {
   width: 100%;
   border-collapse: collapse;
+  /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
+  --device-column: 22%;
+  --status-column: 10%;
+  --modified-column: 12%;
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(1),
+.results-table td:nth-child(1):not(.empty-results) {
+  width: var(--device-column);
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(2),
+.results-table td:nth-child(2) {
+  width: var(--status-column);
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(4),
+.results-table td:nth-child(4) {
+  width: var(--modified-column);
+  white-space: nowrap;
 }
-
 #main #content .device-link {
   color: var(--ow-color-primary);
   font-weight: bold;
 }
-
 .device-name-disabled {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   font-style: italic;
 }
-
 .empty-results {
   padding: 40px;
   text-align: center;
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   font-style: italic;
 }
-
 .pagination {
   padding: 15px 20px;
   text-align: right;
   border-top: 2px solid var(--hairline-color);
   background: var(--darkened-bg);
 }
-
 .pagination a {
   color: var(--body-fg);
   text-decoration: none;
   margin: 0 5px;
 }
-
 .pagination .current-page {
   margin: 0 10px;
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-
 .paginator {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   padding: 10px 20px;
   border-bottom: 1px solid var(--hairline-color);
   margin: 0;
 }
-
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }
-
 .command-status.success {
   color: var(--ow-color-success);
 }
-
 .command-status.failed {
   color: var(--error-fg);
 }
-
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-
 .command-status.skipped {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   opacity: 0.7;
 }
-
-.command-output {
-  padding: 0;
-}
-
 .command-output pre {
   white-space: pre-wrap;
   word-wrap: break-word;
@@ -120,16 +114,14 @@
   color: inherit;
   background: transparent;
 }
-
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
-
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
 
-/* Adjustments for list filters */
+/* List Filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
 }
@@ -143,29 +135,19 @@
   margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
 }
 
-/* ================================================================
-   STEPPER
-   ================================================================ */
-
+/* ==== Stepper CSS ==== */
 .stepper {
   --step-active-bg: var(--ow-color-primary);
   --step-active-text: var(--ow-color-white);
-  --step-active-highlight: var(--ow-color-primary-light);
-  --step-active-tint: var(--ow-color-primary-lighter);
-  --step-active-underline: var(--ow-color-primary);
-
   --step-inactive-bg: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
   --step-inactive-text: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
-
-  --divider-color: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
   --arrow-color: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
   display: inline-flex;
   align-items: stretch;
   overflow: hidden;
   margin-bottom: 1.75rem;
 }
-
-.stepper__step {
+.stepper-step {
   align-items: center;
   cursor: pointer;
   display: flex;
@@ -173,9 +155,7 @@
   padding: 0.875rem 1.5rem 0.875rem 0;
   position: relative;
 }
-
-/* Badge */
-.stepper__badge {
+.stepper-badge {
   align-items: center;
   border-radius: 50%;
   display: flex;
@@ -188,60 +168,42 @@
   width: 2rem;
   z-index: 1;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge {
+.stepper-step.active .stepper-badge {
   background-color: var(--step-active-bg);
   color: var(--step-active-text);
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge::before {
-  background-color: var(--step-active-highlight);
-}
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge {
+.stepper-step.inactive .stepper-badge {
   background-color: var(--step-inactive-bg);
   color: var(--step-inactive-text);
 }
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge::before {
-  display: none;
-}
-
-/* Label */
-.stepper__label {
+.stepper-label {
   display: flex;
   flex-direction: column;
   gap: 0.2rem;
   min-width: 0;
 }
-
-.stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-label-text {
   font-size: 0.875rem;
   font-weight: 500;
   line-height: 1.2;
   white-space: nowrap;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-step.active .stepper-label-text {
   color: var(--step-active-bg);
   font-weight: 600;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-step.inactive .stepper-label-text {
   color: var(--step-inactive-text);
   font-weight: 500;
 }
-
-/* Divider + arrow */
-.stepper__divider {
+.stepper-divider {
   align-items: center;
   display: flex;
   flex-shrink: 0;
   justify-content: center;
   padding: 0.5rem 1rem 0.5rem 0;
 }
-
-.stepper__arrow {
+.stepper-arrow {
   color: var(--arrow-color);
   display: block;
   flex-shrink: 0;
@@ -249,50 +211,41 @@
   width: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ================================================================
-   CONFIRM PAGE
-   ================================================================ */
-
-/* The device table on the confirm page is the stock admin changelist,
-   only the surrounding chrome is styled here. */
-
-/* the stepper and the summary sit outside #content-main, so they do not
-   inherit its spacing */
-.confirm-batch-command .stepper {
+/* ==== Confirm Page CSS ==== */
+.confirm-command .stepper {
   margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
-
-.bc-summary {
+.command-summary {
   margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
-
-.bc-summary .form-row {
+.command-summary .form-row {
   padding: 8px 12px;
 }
-
-/* heading above the device table: only the caption bar, the table follows it
-   as a separate block */
-.bc-devices-heading {
+.devices-heading {
   margin-bottom: 1rem;
 }
-
-.confirm-batch-command #changelist {
+.confirm-command #changelist {
   margin-top: 0;
 }
-
 /* no admin actions on this changelist, so the row would be empty */
-.confirm-batch-command #changelist .actions {
+.confirm-command #changelist .actions {
   display: none;
 }
-
-/* the checkbox column: not a link, so it renders as a plain cell */
-.confirm-batch-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
-.confirm-batch-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
+/* Django styles its own rows with "tr:has(.action-select:checked)", which cannot match here */
+.confirm-command #changelist tbody tr:has(.device-checkbox:checked) {
+  background-color: var(--selected-row);
+}
+@media (forced-colors: active) {
+  .confirm-command #changelist tbody tr:has(.device-checkbox:checked) {
+    background-color: SelectedItem;
+  }
+}
+.confirm-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
+.confirm-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
   text-align: center;
   width: 2rem;
 }
-
-.bc-execute-form .submit-row {
+.execute-form .submit-row {
   display: flex;
   gap: 0.5rem;
   justify-content: flex-end;
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index b432c5dee..d3bb2c54a 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
         <th>{% trans "Status" %}</th>
         <th>{% trans "Output" %}</th>
-        <th>{% trans "Timestamp" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Modified" %}</th>
       </tr>
     </thead>
     <tbody>
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <td class="command-output">
           <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
         </td>
-        <td>{{ command.created|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+        <td>{{ command.modified|date|default:"-" }}</td>
       </tr>
       {% empty %}
       <tr>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 4105befd7..ec92e55e9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -1,30 +1,12 @@
 {% extends device_changelist_template|default:"admin/change_list.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Second step of the mass command workflow.
-
-This extends the changelist template of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for
-Device, not the stock one, because that is where other modules load the assets
-their columns need: openwisp-monitoring pulls the stylesheet and the script of
-the health status accordion in from there. The device table, its pagination and
-its styling are then reused as they are, and only the surrounding chrome is
-added here. BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin empties list_filter and search_fields,
-which is enough for the parent template to render neither.
-See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template().
-
-Note the two forms on this page are siblings, never nested: the changelist
-brings its own <form> (which is never submitted, its checkboxes have no name)
-and the execute button lives in a separate one below it.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# step two: extends the changelist template of the registered Device admin, #}
+{# so the assets of columns added by other modules load too #}
+{# see BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template() #}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{% comment %}
-The changelist only loads forms.css when it has a formset, but the summary
-below is built out of the same .module.aligned rows the execute page uses and
-needs it for its spacing.
-{% endcomment %}
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
 {% endblock %}
@@ -35,14 +17,9 @@
 <script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}" defer></script>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-command{% endblock %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Suppresses the changelist's "Add Device" button, which has no place on a
-confirmation screen. Overriding the block empty also removes the duplicate: the
-theme declares object-tools twice, in .title-wrapper (admin/base.html) and in
-#content-main (admin/change_list.html), so the default renders at both.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# hides the changelist's "Add device" button #}
 {% block object-tools %}{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
@@ -54,40 +31,28 @@
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Everything goes in a single "content" block.
-
-Not "object-tools": the openwisp theme declares that block twice, once inside
-.title-wrapper in admin/base.html and once inside #content-main in
-admin/change_list.html, so overriding it renders the content in both places.
-The same is true of "filters". And a template may only declare a given block
-once, so the stepper, the summary, the device table and the execute button all
-live in this one block.
-{% endcomment %}
 {% block content %}
 <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-    <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-    <span class="stepper__label">
-      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+  <div class="stepper-step inactive">
+    <span class="stepper-badge">1</span>
+    <span class="stepper-label">
+      <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
     </span>
   </div>
-  <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-    <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+  <div class="stepper-divider" aria-hidden="true">
+    <svg class="stepper-arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
       <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
     </svg>
   </div>
-  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-    <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-    <span class="stepper__label">
-      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+  <div class="stepper-step active" aria-current="step">
+    <span class="stepper-badge">2</span>
+    <span class="stepper-label">
+      <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
     </span>
   </div>
 </nav>
 
-<fieldset class="module aligned bc-summary">
+<fieldset class="module aligned command-summary">
   <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
@@ -119,7 +84,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
       <div class="readonly">
-        <strong id="bc-selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
       </div>
     </div>
   </div>
@@ -131,28 +96,23 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   </div>
 </fieldset>
 
-{# same .module h2 caption bar as the Summary heading above #}
-<fieldset class="module aligned bc-devices-heading">
+<fieldset class="module aligned devices-heading">
   <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
 </fieldset>
 
-{# the device table, its pagination and its own <form> #}
+{# renders the changelist: the device table, its pagination, and the <form> wrapping both #}
+{# HTML does not allow nested forms, so the execute form below is a sibling of that one: #}
+{# nesting it made the browser drop the opening tag, leaving the button outside any form #}
 {{ block.super }}
 
-{# sibling of the changelist's form, never nested inside it #}
-{% comment %}
-"data-wizard-token" namespaces the sessionStorage entry holding the unselected
-devices. sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so without it a new
-mass command would inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
-{% endcomment %}
-<form method="post" id="bc-execute-form" class="bc-execute-form"
+<form method="post" id="execute-form" class="execute-form"
   data-total-devices="{{ device_count }}"
   data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
   {% csrf_token %}
   <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
   <div class="submit-row">
     <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
-    <button type="submit" class="default" id="bc-execute-button">
+    <button type="submit" class="default" id="execute-button">
       {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
       Execute on {{ counter }} device
       {% plural %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index a0da29fe5..0aec77986 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 {% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{% comment %}
-First step of the mass command workflow: collects the command details and the
-targets. A valid submission is stored in the session and redirects to the
-confirm page, where the matched devices can be reviewed.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# step one: collects the command details and targets, saves them in the session, #}
+{# then redirects to the confirm page #}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
@@ -36,29 +33,27 @@
   <form method="post" novalidate>
     {% csrf_token %}
     <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-        <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label">
-          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      <div class="stepper-step active" aria-current="step">
+        <span class="stepper-badge">1</span>
+        <span class="stepper-label">
+          <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
         </span>
       </div>
-      <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-        <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <div class="stepper-divider" aria-hidden="true">
+        <svg class="stepper-arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
           <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
         </svg>
       </div>
-      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-        <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label">
-          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      <div class="stepper-step inactive">
+        <span class="stepper-badge">2</span>
+        <span class="stepper-label">
+          <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
         </span>
       </div>
     </nav>
 
     {% if form.non_field_errors %}
-    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors }}</p>
+    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors|join:" " }}</p>
     {% endif %}
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
@@ -75,7 +70,6 @@ <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
         </div>
         {% endif %}
       </div>
-      {# execute-command.js renders the fields of the selected command type here #}
       <div id="command-input-container"></div>
       {{ form.input }}
       {% if form.input.errors %}

From e0cb9fd23167d37519ea8c57acca2d18970feb10 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sat, 15 Aug 2026 02:58:07 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 08/27] [feature] Finalize mass command admin workflow #1345

Aligns the admin workflow with the patterns used by the batch upgrade
of openwisp-firmware-upgrader and fixes the issues found while
reviewing the whole feature.

- Reuse BatchCommand.dry_run() for the confirm page target queryset
  instead of duplicating the targeting rule in the admin
- Return querysets from resolve_devices() and dry_run(), consuming
  them with iterator() where the whole result is walked
- Restore the live counters: affected_devices and total_devices were
  cached properties, which froze the websocket payload at the value
  computed for the first command of the batch
- Truncate the command output of the results table to its last line
- Show date and time in the "Modified" column, formatted server side
  so that live rows and reloaded rows are identical
- Fix the location filter of the skipped devices, which used a non
  existing device_id field of DeviceLocation and raised a 500
- Show the "Clear all filters" link for the location, group and
  organization filters too
- Remove one COUNT query per changelist row by annotating the
  affected devices, and fetch the batch and the skipped devices only
  once per request
- Use message_user(), load the swappable models at module level and
  drop the duplicated readonly fields for consistency with the other
  admin classes
- Restructure batch-command.js and execute-command.js to module level
  functions, dropping the dead gettext fallbacks and guards
- Sync the verbose name of skipped_devices in the migrations, which
  was left unmigrated and failed checkmigrations
- Update the query count of the estimated location tests, the
  location foreign key of BatchCommand adds a SET NULL cascade

Closes #1345
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 242 +++----
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |   6 +
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  29 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |   6 +
 ...0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |   6 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 531 ++++++--------
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 661 ++++++++----------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |   2 +-
 .../geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py     |   5 +-
 ...0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   2 +-
 11 files changed, 668 insertions(+), 824 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 9a6d70cd0..782cb13f4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
 from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
+from django.db.models import Count
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
@@ -22,7 +23,6 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
-from . import settings as app_settings
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
@@ -31,6 +31,11 @@
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
 BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
+Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
 
 
 class CredentialsForm(forms.ModelForm):
@@ -46,14 +51,6 @@ class Meta:
 
 
 class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
-    """Collects the mass command details on the first step of the workflow.
-
-    This form is the only place where the submitted values are validated.
-    Narrowing the querysets in ``__init__`` controls what the widgets offer,
-    it does not control what is accepted, so ``clean()`` re-checks the
-    submitted values against the organizations the user actually manages.
-    """
-
     required_css_class = "required"
 
     class Meta:
@@ -69,14 +66,10 @@ class Meta:
         ]
         widgets = {
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            # filled in by execute-command.js, which renders the fields
-            # relevant to the selected command type
             "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
         }
 
     class Media:
-        # select2 must be loaded before jquery.init.js, which calls
-        # jQuery.noConflict(): same ordering as admin.widgets.AutocompleteMixin
         js = [
             "admin/js/vendor/jquery/jquery.min.js",
             "admin/js/vendor/select2/select2.full.min.js",
@@ -345,27 +338,14 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
-    """Turns the device changelist into the selection table of the confirm page.
-
-    Applied on top of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device rather
-    than on top of this module's DeviceAdmin, because other modules replace
-    that registration: openwisp-monitoring unregisters Device and registers
-    its own subclass, which adds the health status column. Building on the
-    registered class means those columns appear here too, along with the
-    select_related and the media they need, without this module knowing
-    which ones exist. See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_admin().
-
-    Filters and search are removed on purpose: the devices are already
-    determined by the targets chosen on the execute page, this table only
-    allows excluding individual devices from that set. Emptying
-    ``list_filter`` and ``search_fields`` is enough for the stock changelist
-    template to render neither, so it can be reused as it is.
+    """Applied on top of the ModelAdmin registered for Device, for
+    openwisp-monitoring which replaces that registration and
+    its extra columns must appear.
+
+    Filters and search are emptied because the devices are already chosen on
+    the execute page, this table only excludes some of them.
     """
 
-    # DeviceAdmin leaves this as an empty tuple, which ModelAdmin reads as
-    # "link the first column": that would wrap the checkbox in an <a> and
-    # navigate to the device instead of ticking it. Name is the column the
-    # device changelist links anyway.
     list_display_links = ["name"]
     list_filter = []
     search_fields = []
@@ -373,12 +353,6 @@ class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
     list_per_page = 20
     ordering = ["name"]
     change_list_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
-    # django-import-export replaces change_list_template on the instance with
-    # a template of its own, which redefines the object-tools block and so
-    # brings back the "Import", "Export" and "Add device" buttons this page
-    # suppresses. Setting this to None is its documented way of opting out:
-    # ImportExportMixinBase.init_change_list_template() then falls back to
-    # the template set above. Unused when import-export is not installed.
     import_export_change_list_template = None
 
     def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
@@ -386,30 +360,21 @@ def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
         self.devices = devices
 
     def get_list_display(self, request):
-        # resolved per request instead of being a class attribute: the
-        # attribute would be a snapshot taken when this module is imported,
-        # which can be before another module has replaced the registration
         return ["select_device"] + list(super().get_list_display(request))
 
     def get_queryset(self, request):
-        # MultitenantAdminMixin.get_queryset() scopes this to the
-        # organizations managed by the user, independently of list_filter
         return super().get_queryset(request).filter(pk__in=self.devices)
 
     @admin.display(description="")
     def select_device(self, obj):
-        # deliberately without a "name": these checkboxes are never
-        # submitted, execute-command.js mirrors them into the hidden
-        # "excluded" field of the form holding the execute button
         return format_html(
-            '<input type="checkbox" class="bc-select-device" value="{}" checked>',
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}" checked>',
             obj.pk,
         )
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
-    # rendered through BatchCommandDeviceAdmin.change_list_template
     confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
     session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
     list_display = [
@@ -440,7 +405,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
-    device_commands_per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+    device_commands_per_page = 20
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
@@ -459,14 +424,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     readonly_fields = [
         "organization_display",
         "colored_status",
-        "type",
         "formatted_input",
         "affected_devices",
         "display_skipped_devices",
-        "group",
-        "location",
-        "created",
-        "modified",
     ]
 
     class Media:
@@ -500,11 +460,8 @@ def _check_add_permission(self, request):
 
     def execute_command_view(self, request):
         """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
-
-        A valid submission is stored in the session and the user is
-        redirected to the confirm page (Post/Redirect/Get), so that the
-        device table there can be paginated with ordinary GET requests: a
-        pagination link cannot carry the contents of a form.
+        A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
+        page, so that its device table can be paginated with plain GETs.
         """
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
@@ -531,9 +488,7 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
 
     def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         """Second step: review the targeted devices and dispatch the command.
-
-        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone, never by looking
-        for a field in the request body.
+        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone.
         """
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
@@ -553,21 +508,11 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
 
     def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         """Builds the ModelAdmin rendering the device table of the confirm page.
-
-        Composed with the ModelAdmin currently registered for Device instead
-        of a named class, so that the table shows the columns of the device
-        changelist as it actually is. Modules layered on top of the
-        controller replace that registration rather than extending the class
-        this module imports: openwisp-monitoring, for one, unregisters Device
-        and registers a subclass adding the health status column.
-
-        Resolved here, per request, rather than at import time: every app has
-        finished loading by now, so the registration is final. Nothing is
-        imported from those modules and none of them needs to know about this
-        page; with none of them installed this returns the controller's own
-        Device admin and the table is unchanged.
+        Composed with whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device, so the
+        table shows the columns of the device changelist as it actually is:
+        openwisp-monitoring replaces that registration to add its own.
+        Resolved per request, when the registration is final.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
         # registered admin's
@@ -580,16 +525,10 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
 
     def get_device_changelist_template(self):
         """The template the registered Device admin renders its changelist with.
-
-        The confirm page extends it instead of the stock changelist template,
-        because that is where other modules load the assets their columns
-        need: openwisp-monitoring pulls in the stylesheet drawing the health
-        status accordion, and the script expanding it, from there.
-
-        Read from the class rather than from an instance, since
-        django-import-export rewrites the attribute on the instance.
+        The confirm page extends it rather than the stock one, because that
+        is where other modules load the assets their columns need. Read from
+        the class: django-import-export rewrites it on the instance.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
             "admin/change_list.html"
@@ -597,41 +536,45 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
 
     def _restart(self, request):
         """Sends the user back to step one when there is no wizard to show."""
-        messages.warning(
-            request, _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue.")
+        self.message_user(
+            request,
+            _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue."),
+            messages.WARNING,
         )
         return redirect(f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_execute")
 
     def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
         """Devices matched by the organization, group and location chosen.
-
-        ``distinct()`` and an explicit ordering are required because this
-        queryset is paginated: the devicelocation join can return the same
-        device more than once, and page boundaries are undefined without an
-        ordering.
+        The targeting rule lives on the model so this page and the execution
+        cannot drift apart; the multitenancy scope and the ordering the
+        pagination needs are admin concerns, applied on top.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        qs = Device.objects.all()
+        try:
+            devices = BatchCommand.dry_run(
+                organization_id=wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                group_id=wizard.get("group_id"),
+                location_id=wizard.get("location_id"),
+            )["devices"]
+        except ValidationError:
+            # a wizard left in the session while its group or location moved
+            # to another organization: nothing matches, and execute() reports
+            # it through its usual error path
+            return Device.objects.none()
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
-            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
-        if wizard.get("organization_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(organization_id=wizard["organization_id"])
-        if wizard.get("group_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(group_id=wizard["group_id"])
-        if wizard.get("location_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location_id=wizard["location_id"])
-        return qs.distinct().order_by("name")
+            devices = devices.filter(
+                organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
+        return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
 
     def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
         targets = []
-        for app_label, model_name, key in (
-            ("openwisp_users", "Organization", "organization_id"),
-            ("config", "DeviceGroup", "group_id"),
-            ("geo", "Location", "location_id"),
+        for model, key in (
+            (Organization, "organization_id"),
+            (DeviceGroup, "group_id"),
+            (Location, "location_id"),
         ):
             if not wizard.get(key):
                 continue
-            model = swapper.load_model(app_label, model_name)
             target = model.objects.filter(pk=wizard[key]).first()
             if target:
                 targets.append(str(target))
@@ -651,10 +594,8 @@ def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
 
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
-
-        The wizard is popped from the session before anything else happens,
-        so that a double submit cannot create the batch twice: the second
-        request finds nothing and is sent back to step one.
+        The wizard is popped first, so a double submit cannot create the
+        batch twice: the second request finds nothing and restarts.
         """
         wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
         if not wizard:
@@ -680,11 +621,13 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
-            messages.error(request, error.messages[0])
+            self.message_user(request, error.messages[0], messages.ERROR)
             return redirect(
                 f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
             )
-        messages.success(request, _("Mass command executed successfully."))
+        self.message_user(
+            request, _("Mass command executed successfully."), messages.SUCCESS
+        )
         return redirect(
             f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
         )
@@ -697,6 +640,22 @@ def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
         return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
 
+    def get_queryset(self, request):
+        return (
+            super()
+            .get_queryset(request)
+            .annotate(_affected_devices=Count("batch_commands", distinct=True))
+        )
+
+    def get_object(self, request, object_id, from_field=None):
+        """Avoids duplicating queries in change_view custom logic"""
+        cache_attr = f"_cached_object_{object_id}_{from_field}"
+        if not hasattr(request, cache_attr):
+            setattr(
+                request, cache_attr, super().get_object(request, object_id, from_field)
+            )
+        return getattr(request, cache_attr)
+
     def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
         qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related("device")
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
@@ -733,17 +692,27 @@ def formatted_input(self, obj):
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
     def affected_devices(self, obj):
-        return obj.affected_devices
+        count = getattr(obj, "_affected_devices", None)
+        if count is None:
+            count = obj.affected_devices
+        return count
 
     affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
+    affected_devices.admin_order_field = "_affected_devices"
+
+    def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
+        if not hasattr(obj, "_skipped_devices_cache"):
+            obj._skipped_devices_cache = {
+                str(device.pk): device
+                for device in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+            }
+        return obj._skipped_devices_cache
 
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
-        count = len(pks)
+        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
+        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
         lines = [str(count)]
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
@@ -795,8 +764,6 @@ class StatusFilter:
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
 
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
             _("location"),
@@ -864,22 +831,17 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "device_pk": command.device.pk,
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
-            "output": (command.output or "").lstrip(),
-            "created": command.created,
+            "output": command.output_preview,
+            "modified": command.modified,
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
     def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
         """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
-
         Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
-        which is the order they were fanned out in: the newest one is always
-        last. That is what lets the change page append results live without
-        re-fetching, because a new result always belongs on the last page.
-
-        Skipped devices are not Command rows, they are entries of the
-        ``skipped_devices`` field, so they are kept as a (normally short)
-        list and follow the commands.
+        so the newest is always last and the change page can append results
+        live. Skipped devices are not Command rows, they come as a list and
+        follow the commands.
         """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         commands_count = commands_qs.count()
@@ -924,21 +886,19 @@ def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
         return qs
 
     def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
         location_id = filters["location_id"]
         if location_id:
-            DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
-            device_locations = set(
-                DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                    device_id__in=pks,
+            device_locations = {
+                str(pk)
+                for pk in DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                    content_object_id__in=pks,
                     location_id=location_id,
-                ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
-            )
+                ).values_list("content_object_id", flat=True)
+            }
         else:
             device_locations = None
-        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
+        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
         rows = []
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
@@ -962,7 +922,7 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
                     "status": "skipped",
                     "status_display": _("skipped"),
                     "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                    "created": None,
+                    "modified": None,
                     "is_skipped": True,
                 }
             )
@@ -996,7 +956,7 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                     "paginator": paginator,
                     "filter_specs": filter_specs,
                     "has_active_filters": any(
-                        request.GET.get(param) for param in ["status"]
+                        value for key, value in filters.items() if key != "q"
                     ),
                 }
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index b739d6513..5fb187972 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -3,6 +3,8 @@
 from django.apps import AppConfig
 from django.db import transaction
 from django.db.models.signals import post_save
+from django.utils.formats import date_format
+from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
 from openwisp_notifications.signals import notify
 from openwisp_notifications.types import register_notification_type
@@ -88,6 +90,10 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
             batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
             batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
             batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+            batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
+            batch_data["modified"] = date_format(
+                localtime(instance.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
+            )
             batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
             batch = instance.batch_command
             affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index d6edb8697..fb5eb3e2e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -542,6 +542,16 @@ def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
                 }
             )
 
+    @property
+    def output_preview(self):
+        """Last line of the output, for tables which list many commands."""
+        lines = (self.output or "").strip().splitlines()
+        if not lines:
+            return ""
+        if len(lines) == 1:
+            return lines[0]
+        return "… " + lines[-1]
+
     @property
     def is_custom(self):
         return self.type == "custom"
@@ -799,11 +809,11 @@ class Meta:
     def __str__(self):
         return self.label
 
-    @cached_property
+    @property
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
-    @cached_property
+    @property
     def affected_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count()
 
@@ -880,12 +890,13 @@ def clean(self):
 
     def resolve_devices(self):
         """
-        Returns an iterator of devices targeted by this batch command,
+        Returns a queryset of devices targeted by this batch command,
         resolved from explicit M2M devices or filtered by organization,
-        group, and location. Returns an empty iterator if no devices match.
+        group, and location. Callers which walk the whole result should
+        consume it with iterator().
         """
         if self.pk and self.devices.exists():
-            return self.devices.select_related("config").iterator()
+            return self.devices.select_related("config")
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         qs = Device.objects.select_related("config")
         if self.organization_id:
@@ -894,7 +905,7 @@ def resolve_devices(self):
             qs = qs.filter(group=self.group)
         if self.location:
             qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location=self.location)
-        return qs.iterator()
+        return qs
 
     @classmethod
     def execute(cls, **kwargs):
@@ -912,7 +923,7 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
                 batch._validate_org_relations()
             else:
-                batch.devices.set(list(batch.resolve_devices()))
+                batch.devices.set(batch.resolve_devices())
             if not batch.devices.exists():
                 raise ValidationError(
                     _("No devices match the specified criteria."),
@@ -942,7 +953,7 @@ def dry_run(cls, **kwargs):
         cls._validate_devices_org(devices_list, batch.organization_id)
         if devices_list is not None:
             return {"devices": list(devices_list)}
-        return {"devices": list(batch.resolve_devices())}
+        return {"devices": batch.resolve_devices()}
 
     def _clean_sensitive_info(self):
         if self.type == "change_password":
@@ -965,7 +976,7 @@ def create_commands(self):
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
         device_pks = []
-        for device in self.resolve_devices():
+        for device in self.resolve_devices().iterator():
             device_pks.append(device.pk)
             command = Command(
                 device=device,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 73e3e760b..08562ff33 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 import logging
 from copy import deepcopy
 
+from django.utils.formats import date_format
+from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
@@ -81,6 +83,10 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
             row = CommandSerializer(command).data
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+            row["output"] = command.output_preview
+            row["modified"] = date_format(
+                localtime(command.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
+            )
             commands.append(row)
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 8059c39c4..5205fef92 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                             "devices that were skipped during command creation."
                         ),
                         null=True,
-                        verbose_name="Skipped devices",
+                        verbose_name="skipped devices",
                     ),
                 ),
                 (
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index b3aa607a5..c77bfe3fa 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -36,9 +36,9 @@
   width: 100%;
   border-collapse: collapse;
   /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
-  --device-column: 22%;
-  --status-column: 10%;
-  --modified-column: 12%;
+  --device-column: 23%;
+  --status-column: 13%;
+  --modified-column: 15%;
 }
 .results-table th:nth-child(1),
 .results-table td:nth-child(1):not(.empty-results) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 65febc09d..453ef4eca 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -1,357 +1,260 @@
 "use strict";
 
-// admin/change_form.html loads the translation catalog, these fallbacks only
-// keep the page working if it ever fails to load
-var gettext =
-  window.gettext ||
-  function (word) {
-    return word;
-  };
-var ngettext =
-  window.ngettext ||
-  function (singular, plural, count) {
-    return count === 1 ? singular : plural;
-  };
-var interpolate =
-  window.interpolate ||
-  function (fmt, args) {
-    return fmt.replace(/%s/g, function () {
-      return args.shift();
-    });
-  };
+const DEFAULT_PER_PAGE = 20;
+const DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER = "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000";
 
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
-  if (
-    typeof owControllerApiHost === "undefined" ||
-    typeof batchCommandId === "undefined"
-  ) {
-    return;
-  }
-  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(
-    getWebSocketUrl(),
-    null,
-    {
-      debug: false,
-      automaticOpen: false,
-      // The library re-connects if it fails to establish a connection in "timeoutInterval".
-      // On slow internet connections, the default value of "timeoutInterval" will
-      // keep terminating and re-establishing the connection.
-      timeoutInterval: 7000,
-    },
-  );
+  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(getWebSocketUrl(), null, {
+    debug: false,
+    automaticOpen: false,
+    timeoutInterval: 7000,
+  });
   batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("open", function () {
-    requestCurrentState(batchCommandWebSocket);
+    requestCurrentState($, batchCommandWebSocket);
   });
-
   batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("message", function (e) {
-    let data = JSON.parse(e.data);
-    if (data.model === "Command") {
-      handleCommandMessage($, data.data);
-    } else if (data.model === "BatchCommand") {
-      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.data);
-    } else if (data.model === "BatchState") {
-      handleBatchStateMessage($, data.data);
+    const data = JSON.parse(e.data);
+    if (data.type === "command_update") {
+      handleCommandMessage($, data);
+    } else if (data.type === "batch_status") {
+      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data);
+    } else if (data.type === "batch_state") {
+      handleBatchStateMessage($, data);
     }
   });
-
-  // "automaticOpen: false" above means the socket never connects unless
-  // .open() is called explicitly (mirrors commands.js's initCommandWebSockets).
   batchCommandWebSocket.open();
+});
+
+function getWebSocketUrl() {
+  return `${getWebSocketProtocol()}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+}
 
-  function getWebSocketUrl() {
-    let protocol = getWebSocketProtocol();
-    return `${protocol}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+function getWebSocketProtocol() {
+  let protocol = "ws://";
+  if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
+    protocol = "wss://";
   }
+  return protocol;
+}
 
-  function getWebSocketProtocol() {
-    let protocol = "ws://";
-    if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
-      protocol = "wss://";
-    }
-    return protocol;
+function requestCurrentState($, websocket) {
+  if (websocket.readyState !== WebSocket.OPEN) {
+    return;
   }
+  try {
+    websocket.send(
+      JSON.stringify({
+        type: "request_current_state",
+        batch_id: batchCommandId,
+        page: getCurrentPage($),
+      }),
+    );
+  } catch (error) {
+    console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+  }
+}
+
+function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
+  updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+  renderCommand($, data);
+}
 
-  function requestCurrentState(websocket) {
-    if (websocket.readyState === WebSocket.OPEN) {
-      try {
-        websocket.send(
-          JSON.stringify({
-            type: "request_current_state",
-            batch_id: batchCommandId,
-            // only the page being shown is sent back, a mass command can
-            // target thousands of devices
-            page: getCurrentPage(),
-          }),
-        );
-      } catch (error) {
-        console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
+  const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
+  if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
+    $status
+      .removeClass()
+      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+      .text(data.status_display);
+  }
+  if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
+    const $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+    if ($list.length) {
+      const $first = $list.contents().first();
+      if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
+        $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
       }
     }
   }
+}
 
-  function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
-    if (data.batch_status) {
-      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.batch_status);
-    }
-    updateTotals(
-      $,
-      data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
-      data.total_rows,
-    );
-    if (data.commands && Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
-      // These are the results of the page being shown, selected as such by
-      // the server, so they are drawn unconditionally: running them through
-      // the eligibility test used for live messages would reject them, since
-      // an individual result carries no page of its own.
-      data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
-        let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
-        if ($row.length) {
-          updateRow($, $row, command);
-        } else {
-          insertRow($, command);
-        }
-      });
-    }
+function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
+  if (data.batch_status) {
+    handleBatchStatusMessage($, data.batch_status);
   }
-
-  function getActiveStatusFilter() {
-    return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+  updateTotals(
+    $,
+    data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
+    data.total_rows,
+  );
+  if (!data.commands || !Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
+    return;
   }
+  data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
+    const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
+    if ($row.length) {
+      updateRow($, $row, command);
+    } else {
+      insertRow($, command);
+    }
+  });
+}
 
-  function getCurrentPage() {
-    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+function renderCommand($, data) {
+  const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
+  if ($row.length) {
+    updateRow($, $row, data);
+  } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
+    insertRow($, data);
   }
+  // otherwise the row is on another page, the server renders it there
+}
 
-  function getPerPage() {
-    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || 20;
+// The server sends the position of newly created results only, the page is
+// worked out here from the size the table was rendered with: this keeps the
+// first page at "per page" rows while the paginator keeps growing.
+function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
+  // with a filter on, the pushed totals are unfiltered and page boundaries
+  // cannot be worked out
+  if (getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+    return false;
   }
-
-  function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
-    // The totals are updated on every message, whatever happens to the DOM
-    // afterwards. They used to be updated at the end of insertRow(), which
-    // returns early once the page is full, so the counter and the paginator
-    // silently froze as soon as the first page filled up.
-    updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
-    renderCommand($, data);
+  if (data.index == null) {
+    return false;
   }
-
-  function renderCommand($, data) {
-    let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
-    if ($row.length) {
-      updateRow($, $row, data);
-    } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
-      insertRow($, data);
-    }
-    // otherwise the row belongs to another page and is left alone: it will
-    // be rendered by the server when that page is opened
+  const renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(":has(td.empty-results)").length;
+  if (renderedRows >= getPerPage($)) {
+    return false;
   }
+  // the paginator is 1-based, so position 0 is on page 1
+  return Math.floor(data.index / getPerPage($)) + 1 === getCurrentPage($);
+}
 
-  /*
-   * The server states the page a result belongs to, and only does so for
-   * results it has just created. Draw it when that is the page being shown
-   * and it still has room, which is what makes the first page stop at "per
-   * page" rows while the paginator keeps growing, without moving the user.
-   *
-   * The page cannot be derived here from the total number of results: the
-   * total describes the whole batch, not the position of this result. A
-   * status change on the third result still arrives with the total of the
-   * batch, and would be placed on the last page instead of being left alone.
-   */
-  function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
-    // with a filter on, the totals pushed over the websocket are unfiltered
-    // and cannot be used to work out page boundaries
-    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
-      return false;
-    }
-    if (data.page == null) {
-      // a status change, not a new result: it is either already displayed
-      // or it lives on another page
-      return false;
-    }
-    let renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(
-      ":has(td.empty-results)",
-    ).length;
-    if (renderedRows >= getPerPage()) {
-      return false;
-    }
-    return data.page === getCurrentPage();
+function updateRow($, $row, data) {
+  const activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter($);
+  if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
+    $row.remove();
+    return;
   }
+  $row
+    .find(".command-status")
+    .removeClass()
+    .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+    .text(data.status_display);
+  $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
+  $row.find("td:last-child").text(data.modified || "-");
+}
 
-  function updateRow($, $row, data) {
-    let activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter();
-    if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
-      // the row no longer matches the filter the page was rendered with
-      $row.remove();
-      return;
+function insertRow($, data) {
+  $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
+  const $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
+  const rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
+  const $row = $("<tr>").attr({
+    id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
+    "data-device-pk": data.device,
+    class: rowClass,
+  });
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>").append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr({
+          href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
+          class: "device-link",
+        })
+        .text(data.device_name),
+    ),
+  );
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>").append(
+      $("<span>")
+        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+        .text(data.status_display),
+    ),
+  );
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>")
+      .addClass("command-output")
+      .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
+  );
+  $row.append($("<td>").text(data.modified || "-"));
+  $tableBody.append($row);
+}
+
+function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
+  if (affectedDevices != null) {
+    const $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
+    if ($affected.length) {
+      $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
     }
-    let $status = $row.find(".command-status");
-    $status
-      .removeClass()
-      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-      .text(data.status_display);
-    $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
-    $row.find("td:last-child").text(formatTimestamp(data.created));
   }
+  // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
+  if (totalRows == null || getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
+  if ($paginator.length) {
+    $paginator.text(
+      interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [totalRows]),
+    );
+  }
+  renderPagination($, totalRows);
+}
 
-  // Only draws the row: whether it should be drawn at all is decided by
-  // belongsOnCurrentPage(), and the totals are updated independently.
-  function insertRow($, data) {
-    // remove the "No commands found." empty state
-    $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
-    let $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
-    let rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
-    let $row = $("<tr>").attr({
-      id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
-      "data-device-pk": data.device,
-      class: rowClass,
-    });
-    let $deviceTd = $("<td>").append(
+function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
+  const currentPage = getCurrentPage($);
+  const perPage = getPerPage($);
+  const totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
+  $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
+  if (totalPages <= 1) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+  params.delete("page");
+  const baseQuery = params.toString();
+  const buildHref = function (page) {
+    return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
+  };
+  const $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
+  if (currentPage > 1) {
+    $stepLinks.append(
       $("<a>")
-        .attr({ href: getDeviceChangeUrl(data.device), class: "device-link" })
-        .text(data.device_name),
+        .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
+        .text(gettext("Previous")),
     );
-    $row.append($deviceTd);
-    $row.append(
-      $("<td>").append(
-        $("<span>")
-          .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-          .text(data.status_display),
+  }
+  $stepLinks.append(
+    $("<span>")
+      .addClass("current-page")
+      .text(
+        gettext("Page") + " " + currentPage + " " + gettext("of") + " " + totalPages,
       ),
+  );
+  if (currentPage < totalPages) {
+    $stepLinks.append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
+        .text(gettext("Next")),
     );
-    $row.append(
-      $("<td>")
-        .addClass("command-output")
-        .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
-    );
-    $row.append($("<td>").text(formatTimestamp(data.created)));
-    $tableBody.append($row);
   }
+  $("<div>").addClass("pagination").append($stepLinks).appendTo(".results-container");
+}
 
-  function getDeviceChangeUrl(devicePk) {
-    let template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
-    if (!template) {
-      return "#";
-    }
-    return template.replace("00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000", devicePk);
+function getDeviceChangeUrl($, devicePk) {
+  const template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
+  if (!template) {
+    return "#";
   }
+  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk);
+}
 
-  /*
-   * "affected_devices" counts Command rows, "total_rows" also counts the
-   * skipped devices the table paginates alongside them. They are two
-   * different numbers and drive two different things: passing one for both
-   * makes the page count too small and the last page unreachable whenever a
-   * device was skipped.
-   *
-   * Both are authoritative values recomputed server side on every send,
-   * never a client tracked delta, so a missed or duplicate message cannot
-   * desync them permanently.
-   */
-  function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
-    if (affectedDevices != null) {
-      let $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
-      if ($affected.length) {
-        $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
-      }
-    }
-    if (totalRows == null) {
-      return;
-    }
-    // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
-    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
-      return;
-    }
-    let $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
-    if ($paginator.length) {
-      $paginator.text(
-        interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [
-          totalRows,
-        ]),
-      );
-    }
-    renderPagination($, totalRows);
-  }
-
-  /*
-   * Rebuilt from scratch rather than patched, so there is a single code
-   * path whether or not the widget was rendered by the server. Patching
-   * only the "Page X of Y" label used to leave the last page without a
-   * "Next" link: at "3 of 3" growing to "3 of 5" the label changed but
-   * there was still no way to move forward.
-   *
-   * This only touches the pagination widget, never the rows: the user is
-   * never navigated automatically, and no page is ever re-fetched.
-   */
-  function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
-    let currentPage = getCurrentPage();
-    let perPage = getPerPage();
-    let totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
-    $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
-    if (totalPages <= 1) {
-      return;
-    }
-    let pageLabel =
-      gettext("Page") +
-      " " +
-      currentPage +
-      " " +
-      gettext("of") +
-      " " +
-      totalPages;
-    let params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
-    params.delete("page");
-    let baseQuery = params.toString();
-    let buildHref = function (page) {
-      return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
-    };
-    let $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
-    if (currentPage > 1) {
-      $stepLinks.append(
-        $("<a>")
-          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
-          .text(gettext("Previous")),
-      );
-    }
-    $stepLinks.append($("<span>").addClass("current-page").text(pageLabel));
-    if (currentPage < totalPages) {
-      $stepLinks.append(
-        $("<a>")
-          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
-          .text(gettext("Next")),
-      );
-    }
-    $("<div>")
-      .addClass("pagination")
-      .append($stepLinks)
-      .appendTo(".results-container");
-  }
+function getActiveStatusFilter($) {
+  return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+}
 
-  function handleBatchCommandMessage($, data) {
-    let $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
-    if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
-      $status
-        .removeClass()
-        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-        .text(data.status_display);
-    }
-    if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
-      let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
-      if ($list.length) {
-        let $first = $list.contents().first();
-        if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
-          $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
+function getCurrentPage($) {
+  return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+}
 
-  function formatTimestamp(iso) {
-    if (!iso) {
-      return "-";
-    }
-    let date = new Date(iso);
-    if (isNaN(date.getTime())) {
-      return "-";
-    }
-    return date.toLocaleString();
-  }
-});
+function getPerPage($) {
+  return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || DEFAULT_PER_PAGE;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 320f88f32..6ac818c27 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,381 +1,338 @@
-django.jQuery(function ($) {
-  "use strict";
+"use strict";
 
-  // Both steps of the mass command workflow load this file. Each section
-  // returns early when the element it is anchored to is missing, so only
-  // the one belonging to the current page does anything.
-  initExecuteCommandForm($);
-  initConfirmCommandSelection($);
+const COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+const COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+const EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
+const WIZARD_SELECTS = "#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location";
 
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-  // Execute command js
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  initExecuteCommandForm($);
+  initDeviceSelection($);
+});
 
-  function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
-    var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-    var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
+  const $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+  if (!$typeSelect.length) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+  const $container = $("#command-input-container");
+  const fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
+  const $hiddenInput = getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName);
+
+  function updateCustomCommandInput() {
+    const command = $.trim($container.find("#id_command").val());
+    $hiddenInput.val(command ? JSON.stringify({ command: command }) : "");
+  }
 
-    var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
-    if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+  function updateChangePasswordInput() {
+    const password = $container.find("#id_password").val();
+    const confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password").val();
+    $hiddenInput.val(
+      password && confirmPassword
+        ? JSON.stringify({
+            password: password,
+            confirm_password: confirmPassword,
+          })
+        : "",
+    );
+  }
 
-    var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-    var $container = $("#command-input-container");
-    var fieldName = $("#id_input").length
-      ? $("#id_input").attr("name")
-      : "input";
-    var $hiddenInput;
+  function handleTypeChange() {
+    const selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    $container.empty();
+    if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName);
+      updateCustomCommandInput();
+    } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
+      updateChangePasswordInput();
+    } else {
+      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    }
+  }
 
-    function ensureHiddenInput() {
-      $hiddenInput = $form.find(
-        'input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]',
-      );
-      if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-        $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-        $form.append($hiddenInput);
+  // a new mass command starts here, so the devices unselected in an earlier
+  // one which was configured but never executed are dropped
+  clearAbandonedExclusions();
+
+  $container.on("input", "#id_command", updateCustomCommandInput);
+  $container.on(
+    "input",
+    "#id_password, #id_confirm_password",
+    updateChangePasswordInput,
+  );
+  $typeSelect.on("change", handleTypeChange);
+  handleTypeChange();
+
+  $(WIZARD_SELECTS).select2({
+    theme: "default",
+    placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
+    allowClear: true,
+    width: "resolve",
+  });
+
+  // admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back
+  // restores the form values after select2 has rendered its labels
+  $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
+    $(WIZARD_SELECTS).each(function () {
+      const $field = $(this);
+      if ($field.data("select2")) {
+        $field.trigger("change.select2");
       }
+    });
+    if (!$typeSelect.val()) {
+      return;
     }
-
-    function clearContainer() {
-      $container.empty();
+    handleTypeChange();
+    let data = null;
+    try {
+      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+    } catch (error) {
+      data = null;
     }
-
-    function syncCustom() {
-      var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-      val = $.trim(val);
-      $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+    if (data && data.command) {
+      $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
     }
-
-    function syncPassword() {
-      var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
-      var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
-      $hiddenInput.val(
-        pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+  });
+
+  $("#review-command-btn").on("click", function () {
+    clearFieldErrors($);
+    const type = $typeSelect.val();
+    let hasError = false;
+    if (!type) {
+      showFieldError(
+        $typeSelect.closest(".form-row"),
+        gettext("This field is required."),
       );
+      hasError = true;
     }
-
-    function buildCustomField() {
-      var $wrapper = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $fc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $fc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-command" class="required">' +
-          gettext("Command") +
-          "</label>",
+    if (!$.trim($("#id_label").val() || "")) {
+      showFieldError(
+        $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
+        gettext("This field is required."),
       );
-      $fc.append(
-        '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
-          fieldName +
-          '" class="vTextField">',
-      );
-      $wrapper.append($fc);
-      $wrapper.append(
-        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-command_helptext"><div>' +
-          gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
-          "</div></div>",
-      );
-      $container.append($wrapper);
+      hasError = true;
     }
-
-    function buildChangePasswordField() {
-      var $pwRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $pwFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $pwFc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-password" class="required">' +
-          gettext("New password") +
-          "</label>",
-      );
-      $pwFc.append(
-        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-      );
-      $pwRow.append($pwFc);
-      $pwRow.append(
-        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-password_helptext"><div>' +
-          gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
-          "</div></div>",
-      );
-      $container.append($pwRow);
-
-      var $cpRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $cpFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $cpFc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" class="required">' +
-          gettext("Confirm password") +
-          "</label>",
-      );
-      $cpFc.append(
-        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-      );
-      $cpRow.append($cpFc);
-      $container.append($cpRow);
-    }
-
-    function onTypeChange() {
-      var selected = $typeSelect.val();
-      clearContainer();
-
-      if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-        buildCustomField();
-        syncCustom();
-      } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-        buildChangePasswordField();
-        syncPassword();
-      } else {
-        $hiddenInput.val("");
-      }
-    }
-
-    // Reaching this page starts a new mass command, so drop the device
-    // selections of any earlier one the user configured but never executed:
-    // they are namespaced per command and would otherwise pile up for as
-    // long as the browser tab lives.
-    discardAbandonedSelections();
-
-    ensureHiddenInput();
-    $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
-    $container.on(
-      "input",
-      "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
-      syncPassword,
-    );
-    $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
-    onTypeChange();
-
-    $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").select2({
-      theme: "default",
-      placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
-      allowClear: true,
-      width: "resolve",
-    });
-
-    // Admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back to
-    // this page re-fetches it and the browser restores the previous form
-    // values after select2 has already been initialized, leaving the rendered
-    // labels stale. Re-sync the select2 display on every pageshow event.
-    $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
-      $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").each(
-        function () {
-          var $field = $(this);
-          if ($field.data("select2")) $field.trigger("change.select2");
-        },
-      );
-      if ($typeSelect.val()) {
-        onTypeChange();
-        var data = null;
-        try {
-          data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-        } catch (e) {
-          data = null;
-        }
-        if (data && data.command) {
-          $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val(data.command);
-        }
+    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      const command = $container.find("#id_command").val();
+      if (!$.trim(command || "")) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $container.find(".form-row").first(),
+          gettext("This field is required."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
       }
-    });
-
-    function clearAllErrors() {
-      $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
-      $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
     }
-
-    function showFieldError($row, message) {
-      $row.addClass("errors");
-      $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+    if (!hasError) {
+      $form.submit();
     }
+  });
+}
 
-    var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
-    if ($reviewBtn.length) {
-      $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
-        clearAllErrors();
-
-        var type = $typeSelect.val();
-        var $typeRow = $typeSelect.closest(".form-row");
-        var hasError = false;
-
-        if (!type) {
-          showFieldError($typeRow, gettext("This field is required."));
-          hasError = true;
-        }
-
-        var label = $("#id_label").val();
-        if (!label || !$.trim(label)) {
-          showFieldError(
-            $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
-            gettext("This field is required."),
-          );
-          hasError = true;
-        }
-
-        if (type === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-          var cmd = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-          if (!cmd || !$.trim(cmd)) {
-            showFieldError(
-              $container.find(".form-row").first(),
-              gettext("This field is required."),
-            );
-            hasError = true;
-          }
-        }
-
-        if (hasError) return;
-
-        $form.submit();
-      });
-    }
+function initDeviceSelection($) {
+  const $form = $("#execute-form");
+  if (!$form.length) {
+    return;
   }
-
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-  // Confirm command js
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-
-  /*
-   * Device selection on the confirm page.
-   *
-   * Every device matched by the targets chosen on the first step starts
-   * selected, unselecting one adds it to the "excluded" list. That list is
-   * kept both in a hidden field, submitted when the command is executed, and
-   * in sessionStorage, because turning the page of the device table is an
-   * ordinary page load: without it, unselecting a device on the first page
-   * would be forgotten as soon as the second page is opened.
-   */
-  var STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
-
-  function discardAbandonedSelections() {
-    try {
-      var storage = window.sessionStorage;
-      for (var i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-        var key = storage.key(i);
-        if (key && key.indexOf(STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
-          storage.removeItem(key);
-        }
-      }
-    } catch (e) {
-      // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
-    }
+  // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so the key carries the
+  // token of this mass command to stop a new one inheriting its exclusions
+  const storageKey = EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
+  const $table = $("#result_list");
+  const $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
+  const $count = $("#selected-count");
+  const $button = $("#execute-button");
+  const totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
+  const excluded = getStoredExclusions($, storageKey);
+
+  function updateSelectionSummary() {
+    const pks = Object.keys(excluded);
+    const selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
+    $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
+    setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks);
+    $count.text(selected);
+    $button.text(
+      interpolate(ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected), [
+        selected,
+      ]),
+    );
+    $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
+    updateSelectAllCheckbox();
   }
 
-  function initConfirmCommandSelection($) {
-    var $form = $("#bc-execute-form");
-    if (!$form.length) return;
-
-    // Namespaced by the token the server issues for this mass command:
-    // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so a shared key would
-    // make a new command inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
-    var STORAGE_KEY = STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
-    var $table = $("#result_list");
-    var $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
-    var $count = $("#bc-selected-count");
-    var $button = $("#bc-execute-button");
-    var totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
-    var excluded = readStoredExclusions();
+  function updateSelectAllCheckbox() {
+    const $checkboxes = $table.find(".device-checkbox");
+    $("#select-all-devices").prop(
+      "checked",
+      $checkboxes.length > 0 &&
+        $checkboxes.filter(":checked").length === $checkboxes.length,
+    );
+  }
 
-    function readStoredExclusions() {
-      var stored = {};
-      try {
-        var raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(STORAGE_KEY);
-        $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
-          stored[pk] = true;
-        });
-      } catch (e) {
-        // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable:
-        // the selection is then simply not carried across pages
-      }
-      return stored;
+  $table.on("change", ".device-checkbox", function () {
+    const pk = $(this).val();
+    if (this.checked) {
+      delete excluded[pk];
+    } else {
+      excluded[pk] = true;
     }
-
-    function storeExclusions(pks) {
-      try {
-        window.sessionStorage.setItem(STORAGE_KEY, JSON.stringify(pks));
-      } catch (e) {
-        // see readStoredExclusions()
+    updateSelectionSummary();
+  });
+
+  // only the devices listed on the current page are toggled, the ones the
+  // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+  $table.on("change", "#select-all-devices", function () {
+    const checked = this.checked;
+    $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
+      const $checkbox = $(this);
+      if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
+        $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
       }
-    }
+    });
+  });
+
+  $form.on("submit", function () {
+    removeStoredExclusions(storageKey);
+    // guards against a double click creating two mass commands
+    $button.prop("disabled", true);
+  });
+
+  renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table);
+  restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded);
+  updateSelectionSummary();
+}
+
+function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
+  let $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
+  if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+    $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+    $form.append($hiddenInput);
+  }
+  return $hiddenInput;
+}
+
+function renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName) {
+  const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $flexContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
+  );
+  $flexContainer.append(
+    '<input type="text" id="id_command" name="' + fieldName + '" class="vTextField">',
+  );
+  $row.append($flexContainer);
+  $row.append(
+    '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
+      gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
+      "</div></div>",
+  );
+  $container.append($row);
+}
+
+function renderChangePasswordFields($, $container) {
+  const $passwordRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $passwordContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $passwordContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_password" class="required">' + gettext("New password") + "</label>",
+  );
+  $passwordContainer.append(
+    '<input type="password" id="id_password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+  );
+  $passwordRow.append($passwordContainer);
+  $passwordRow.append(
+    '<div class="help" id="id_password_helptext"><div>' +
+      gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
+      "</div></div>",
+  );
+  $container.append($passwordRow);
+
+  const $confirmRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $confirmContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $confirmContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_confirm_password" class="required">' +
+      gettext("Confirm password") +
+      "</label>",
+  );
+  $confirmContainer.append(
+    '<input type="password" id="id_confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+  );
+  $confirmRow.append($confirmContainer);
+  $container.append($confirmRow);
+}
+
+function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
+  const $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
+  if (!$header.length || $header.find("#select-all-devices").length) {
+    return;
+  }
+  $header.append(
+    $("<input>").attr({
+      type: "checkbox",
+      id: "select-all-devices",
+      title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
+    }),
+  );
+}
+
+// rows are rendered selected by the server, untick the ones excluded earlier
+function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
+  $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
+    const $checkbox = $(this);
+    $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
+  });
+}
+
+// exclusions are kept in sessionStorage because turning a page of the device
+// table is an ordinary page load, which would otherwise forget them
+function getStoredExclusions($, storageKey) {
+  const stored = {};
+  try {
+    const raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(storageKey);
+    $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
+      stored[pk] = true;
+    });
+  } catch (error) {
+    // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
+  }
+  return stored;
+}
+
+function setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks) {
+  try {
+    window.sessionStorage.setItem(storageKey, JSON.stringify(pks));
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
 
-    function clearExclusions() {
-      try {
-        window.sessionStorage.removeItem(STORAGE_KEY);
-      } catch (e) {
-        // see readStoredExclusions()
+function removeStoredExclusions(storageKey) {
+  try {
+    window.sessionStorage.removeItem(storageKey);
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
+
+function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
+  try {
+    const storage = window.sessionStorage;
+    for (let i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+      const key = storage.key(i);
+      if (key && key.indexOf(EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
+        storage.removeItem(key);
       }
     }
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
 
-    // rows are rendered selected by the server, restore the ones which were
-    // unselected on a previously visited page
-    function restoreCheckboxes() {
-      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
-        var $checkbox = $(this);
-        $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
-      });
-    }
-
-    function refresh() {
-      var pks = Object.keys(excluded);
-      var selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
-      $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
-      storeExclusions(pks);
-      $count.text(selected);
-      $button.text(
-        interpolate(
-          ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected),
-          [selected],
-        ),
-      );
-      $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
-      refreshSelectAll();
-    }
-
-    function refreshSelectAll() {
-      var $checkboxes = $table.find(".bc-select-device");
-      var $checked = $checkboxes.filter(":checked");
-      $("#bc-select-all").prop(
-        "checked",
-        $checkboxes.length > 0 && $checked.length === $checkboxes.length,
-      );
-    }
-
-    // the changelist has no header checkbox of its own once the admin
-    // actions are disabled, so add one for the current page
-    function addSelectAllCheckbox() {
-      var $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
-      if (!$header.length || $header.find("#bc-select-all").length) return;
-      $header.append(
-        $("<input>").attr({
-          type: "checkbox",
-          id: "bc-select-all",
-          title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
-        }),
-      );
-    }
-
-    $table.on("change", ".bc-select-device", function () {
-      var pk = $(this).val();
-      if (this.checked) {
-        delete excluded[pk];
-      } else {
-        excluded[pk] = true;
-      }
-      refresh();
-    });
-
-    // only the devices listed on the current page are affected: devices the
-    // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
-    $table.on("change", "#bc-select-all", function () {
-      var checked = this.checked;
-      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
-        var $checkbox = $(this);
-        if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
-          $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
-        }
-      });
-    });
-
-    $form.on("submit", function () {
-      clearExclusions();
-      // guards against a double click creating two mass commands, the
-      // server discards the second request as well
-      $button.prop("disabled", true);
-    });
+function clearFieldErrors($) {
+  $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
+  $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
+}
 
-    addSelectAllCheckbox();
-    restoreCheckboxes();
-    refresh();
-  }
-});
+function showFieldError($row, message) {
+  $row.addClass("errors");
+  $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index d3bb2c54a..32c8f9441 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <td class="command-output">
           <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
         </td>
-        <td>{{ command.modified|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+        <td>{{ command.modified|date:"DATETIME_FORMAT"|default:"-" }}</td>
       </tr>
       {% empty %}
       <tr>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py b/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
index b3f0d3772..f253aeea8 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
@@ -727,9 +727,10 @@ def _verify_location_details(device, mocked_response):
             old_location = device2.devicelocation.location
             device2.last_ip = "172.217.22.10"
             device2.save()
-            # 3 queries related to notifications cleanup
+            # 3 queries related to notifications cleanup,
+            # 1 to set BatchCommand.location to NULL when the location is deleted
             device2.refresh_from_db()
-            with self.assertNumQueries(16):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(17):
                 manage_estimated_locations(device2.pk, device2.last_ip)
             mock_info.assert_called_once_with(
                 f"Estimated location saved successfully for {device2.pk}"
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index c0f67afd1..675ddac9e 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         blank=True,
                         null=True,
                         default=dict,
-                        verbose_name="Skipped devices",
+                        verbose_name="skipped devices",
                         help_text=(
                             "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
                             "devices that were skipped during command creation."

From 2fb60eebd02baec378ac56aa576812bf521c7211 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 18 Aug 2026 19:56:29 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 09/27] [fix] Addressed coderabbit comments

- Use _registry instead of get_model_admin(), which is Django 5.0+
  while the CI matrix still runs Django 4.2
- Validate the UUID request parameters before they reach the queryset
  filters, a malformed id returned a 500
- Log the ValidationError swallowed when resolving the wizard targets
- Store the device name and error in skipped_devices and cap the admin
  field to a count, a per reason breakdown and ten devices, a batch
  skipping thousands of devices rendered one line each
- Render the skipped devices live: send bounded counts and previews on
  batch_status and window the skipped rows into the paginated page of
  the websocket resync
- Use gettext instead of gettext_lazy in the websocket payload, the
  lazy proxy could not be serialized by the channel layer
- Drop the page parameter from the change page filter links so that
  filtering restarts from the first page
- Keep deleted devices in the skipped rows of the unfiltered table,
  the field and the table disagreed on the count
- Add an accessible label to the device checkboxes of the confirm page
- Validate the change password fields inline, the form is submitted
  with novalidate so the length was never checked
- Restore the wizard values when going back from the confirm page
- Hide the command types the organization is not allowed to run from
  non superusers, every other entry point already filtered them
- Extract the repeated field markup of the execute page into an include
  and use SimpleNamespace for the status filter spec
- Use the locale aware format for the "Triggered by" timestamp
- Drop the full stop from the two validation messages shown in the
  skipped devices list
- Remove three redundant queries from the execute endpoint: the devices
  check of an unsaved batch, the second count of the websocket payload
  and the emptiness check after devices.set()
- Return an empty command queryset for the "skipped" status filter,
  it listed every command of the batch on top of the skipped devices
- Drop the command input from the batch websocket payloads and mask it
  in the admin, the change_password plaintext was exposed until the
  celery task cleaned it
- Reuse the affected devices count for the total rows, total_devices
  ran the same COUNT a second time on every command save
- Submit the execute form from its submit event so that pressing Enter
  runs the same validation as the button
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 125 ++++++++++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  16 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  69 ++++++----
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  24 +++-
 ...0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   5 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |   5 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  84 +++++++++---
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   |  66 +++++----
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  14 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |   4 +-
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |  80 +----------
 .../connection/batch_command/form_row.html    |  12 ++
 .../connection/tests/test_api.py              |  14 +-
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  18 +--
 ...0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   5 +-
 15 files changed, 314 insertions(+), 227 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 782cb13f4..2862b8844 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
+import logging
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
-from uuid import uuid4
+from uuid import UUID, uuid4
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
-from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
+from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.db.models import Count
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
@@ -27,6 +28,8 @@
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
@@ -96,6 +99,15 @@ def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
             self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
                 organization_id__in=organization_ids
             )
+        allowed_commands = {}
+        for organization_id in organization_ids:
+            allowed_commands.update(
+                dict(Command.get_org_allowed_commands(organization_id=organization_id))
+            )
+        empty_choices = [
+            choice for choice in self.fields["type"].choices if not choice[0]
+        ]
+        self.fields["type"].choices = empty_choices + list(allowed_commands.items())
 
     def clean(self):
         cleaned_data = super().clean()
@@ -368,8 +380,10 @@ def get_queryset(self, request):
     @admin.display(description="")
     def select_device(self, obj):
         return format_html(
-            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}" checked>',
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}"'
+            ' aria-label="{}" checked>',
             obj.pk,
+            _("Include {}").format(obj.name),
         )
 
 
@@ -415,9 +429,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
         "affected_devices",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
         "group",
         "location",
-        "display_skipped_devices",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
@@ -472,6 +486,7 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
                     f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
                 )
         else:
+            request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
             form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
@@ -513,7 +528,8 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         openwisp-monitoring replaces that registration to add its own.
         Resolved per request, when the registration is final.
         """
-        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
+        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
         # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
         # registered admin's
         device_admin_class = type(
@@ -529,7 +545,8 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
         is where other modules load the assets their columns need. Read from
         the class: django-import-export rewrites it on the instance.
         """
-        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
+        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
         return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
             "admin/change_list.html"
         )
@@ -555,10 +572,15 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
                 group_id=wizard.get("group_id"),
                 location_id=wizard.get("location_id"),
             )["devices"]
-        except ValidationError:
-            # a wizard left in the session while its group or location moved
-            # to another organization: nothing matches, and execute() reports
-            # it through its usual error path
+        except (ObjectDoesNotExist, ValidationError) as error:
+            logger.warning(
+                "Failed to resolve devices for mass command wizard"
+                " (organization_id=%s, group_id=%s, location_id=%s): %s",
+                wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                wizard.get("group_id"),
+                wizard.get("location_id"),
+                error,
+            )
             return Device.objects.none()
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
             devices = devices.filter(
@@ -618,6 +640,8 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         }
         try:
             batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
+        except ObjectDoesNotExist:
+            return self._restart(request)
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
@@ -632,9 +656,19 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
             f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
         )
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def _get_uuid(value):
+        try:
+            return str(UUID(str(value)))
+        except (AttributeError, TypeError, ValueError):
+            return ""
+
     @staticmethod
     def _get_pk_list(source, name):
-        return [pk for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",") if pk]
+        pks = (
+            BatchCommandAdmin._get_uuid(pk) for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",")
+        )
+        return [pk for pk in pks if pk]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
@@ -687,7 +721,9 @@ def colored_status(self, obj):
     def formatted_input(self, obj):
         if not obj.input:
             return "-"
-        return obj.input.get("command", obj.input)
+        if obj.type == "change_password":
+            return "********"
+        return self._describe_input(obj.input) or "-"
 
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
@@ -711,16 +747,18 @@ def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
-        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
-        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
-        lines = [str(count)]
-        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = devices.get(pk_str)
-            name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
-            lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
+        rows = obj.get_skipped_preview()
+        lines = [str(len(obj.skipped_devices))]
+        lines += [
+            format_html("{}: {}", row["device_name"], row["output"]) for row in rows
+        ]
+        if len(rows) < len(obj.skipped_devices):
+            lines.insert(-1, "\u2026")
         return format_html(
-            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}'
+            '<p class="skipped-devices-note">{}</p></div>',
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
+            _("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device."),
         )
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
@@ -736,6 +774,7 @@ def _build_filter_specs(
     ):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
+        params.pop("page", None)
 
         def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             q = params.copy()
@@ -758,11 +797,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
                 _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
             )
 
-        class StatusFilter:
-            title = _("status")
-            choices = status_choices
-
-        filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+        filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
@@ -828,7 +863,7 @@ def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choic
     def _command_row(command):
         return {
             "device_name": command.device.name,
-            "device_pk": command.device.pk,
+            "device": command.device.pk,
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
             "output": command.output_preview,
@@ -866,16 +901,18 @@ def _get_active_filters(self, request):
         return {
             "q": request.GET.get("q", ""),
             "status": request.GET.get("status", ""),
-            "location_id": request.GET.get("location_id", ""),
-            "group_id": request.GET.get("group_id", ""),
-            "organization_id": request.GET.get("organization_id", ""),
+            "location_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("location_id", "")),
+            "group_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("group_id", "")),
+            "organization_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("organization_id", "")),
         }
 
     def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
+        status = filters["status"]
+        if status == "skipped":
+            return qs.none()
         if filters["q"]:
             qs = qs.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
-        status = filters["status"]
-        if status and status != "skipped":
+        if status:
             qs = qs.filter(status=status)
         if filters["location_id"]:
             qs = qs.filter(device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"])
@@ -900,9 +937,19 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
             device_locations = None
         devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
         rows = []
-        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+        for pk_str, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
             if not device:
+                if not any(
+                    (
+                        filters["organization_id"],
+                        filters["group_id"],
+                        location_id,
+                    )
+                ) and (
+                    not filters["q"] or filters["q"].lower() in skipped["name"].lower()
+                ):
+                    rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
                 continue
             if (
                 filters["organization_id"]
@@ -913,19 +960,9 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
                 continue
             if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
                 continue
-            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in device.name.lower():
+            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in skipped["name"].lower():
                 continue
-            rows.append(
-                {
-                    "device_name": device.name,
-                    "device_pk": pk_str,
-                    "status": "skipped",
-                    "status_display": _("skipped"),
-                    "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                    "modified": None,
-                    "is_skipped": True,
-                }
-            )
+            rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
         return rows
 
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 5fb187972..37dbcfc7c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -78,16 +78,18 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
+        if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
+            return
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
         if not created:
-            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
                 f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
         if instance.batch_command_id:
-            batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+            batch_data = dict(serialized_data)
+            batch_data.pop("input", None)
             batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
             batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
             batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
@@ -98,7 +100,9 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
             batch = instance.batch_command
             affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
             batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = batch.total_devices
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                batch.skipped_devices or {}
+            )
             if created:
                 batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
@@ -114,6 +118,12 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
         batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
+        affected_devices = instance.affected_devices
+        skipped_count = len(batch_data.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {})
+        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
+        batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
+        batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
             f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
             {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index fb5eb3e2e..d276528a6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     def clean(self):
         if self.device.is_fully_deactivated():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated.")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated")})
         self._verify_command_type_allowed()
         self._verify_connection()
         try:
@@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ def clean(self):
     def _verify_connection(self):
         """Raises validation error if device has no connection and credentials."""
         if self.device and not self.device.deviceconnection_set.exists():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned.")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned")})
 
     def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
         """Raises validation error if command type is not allowed."""
@@ -796,8 +796,8 @@ class AbstractBatchCommand(ValidateOrgMixin, TimeStampedEditableModel):
         default=dict,
         verbose_name=_("skipped devices"),
         help_text=_(
-            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for devices "
-            "that were skipped during command creation."
+            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the validation "
+            "error that caused it to be skipped during command creation."
         ),
     )
 
@@ -813,6 +813,27 @@ def __str__(self):
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
+        return {
+            "device": str(device_pk),
+            "device_name": skipped["name"],
+            "status": "skipped",
+            "status_display": gettext("skipped"),
+            "output": skipped["error"],
+            "modified": None,
+            "is_skipped": True,
+        }
+
+    def get_skipped_rows(self, start=0, end=None):
+        items = list((self.skipped_devices or {}).items())[start:end]
+        return [self.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped) for pk, skipped in items]
+
+    def get_skipped_preview(self, limit=10):
+        if len(self.skipped_devices or {}) <= limit:
+            return self.get_skipped_rows()
+        return self.get_skipped_rows(end=2) + self.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)
+
     @property
     def affected_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count()
@@ -829,18 +850,15 @@ def failed(self):
     def _validate_device_org(device, organization_id):
         if organization_id and device.organization_id != organization_id:
             raise ValidationError(
-                {
-                    "devices": _(
-                        "All devices must belong to the same "
-                        "organization as the batch command."
-                    )
-                }
+                {"devices": _("All devices must belong to the same organization.")}
             )
 
     @classmethod
     def _validate_devices_org(cls, devices, organization_id):
         if not devices:
             return
+        if not organization_id:
+            organization_id = devices[0].organization_id
         for device in devices:
             cls._validate_device_org(device, organization_id)
 
@@ -849,16 +867,11 @@ def _validate_org_relations(self):
             return
         self._validate_org_relation("group", field_error="group")
         self._validate_org_relation("location", field_error="location")
-        if self.pk and self.devices.exists():
+        if not self._state.adding and self.devices.exists():
             org_mismatch = self.devices.exclude(organization=self.organization).exists()
             if org_mismatch:
                 raise ValidationError(
-                    {
-                        "devices": _(
-                            "All devices must belong to the same "
-                            "organization as the batch command."
-                        )
-                    }
+                    {"devices": _("All devices must belong to the same organization.")}
                 )
 
     def clean(self):
@@ -919,12 +932,14 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
         with transaction.atomic():
             batch.full_clean()
             batch.save()
-            if devices_list is not None:
+            if devices_list is None:
+                devices_list = list(batch.resolve_devices())
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
-                batch._validate_org_relations()
             else:
-                batch.devices.set(batch.resolve_devices())
-            if not batch.devices.exists():
+                cls._validate_devices_org(devices_list, batch.organization_id)
+                batch.devices.set(devices_list)
+                batch._validate_org_relations()
+            if not devices_list:
                 raise ValidationError(
                     _("No devices match the specified criteria."),
                 )
@@ -971,7 +986,8 @@ def create_commands(self):
         )
         if not updated:
             return
-        self.refresh_from_db(fields=["status"])
+        self.status = "in-progress"
+        self.save(update_fields=["status"])
         Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
@@ -988,9 +1004,12 @@ def create_commands(self):
                 command.full_clean()
                 command.save()
             except ValidationError as e:
-                self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = (
-                    e.messages if hasattr(e, "messages") else [str(e)]
-                )
+                self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
+                    "name": device.name,
+                    "error": (
+                        ", ".join(e.messages) if hasattr(e, "messages") else str(e)
+                    ),
+                }
                 logger.warning(
                     "Skipping device %s for batch %s: %s",
                     device.pk,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 08562ff33..9b2ac78f6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -51,7 +51,11 @@ def receive(self, text_data):
         try:
             content = json.loads(text_data)
         except ValueError:
-            logger.warning("Received a websocket message which is not valid JSON")
+            content = None
+        if not isinstance(content, dict):
+            logger.warning(
+                "Received a websocket message which is not a valid JSON object"
+            )
             return
         message_type = content.get("type")
         if message_type == self.current_state_message:
@@ -70,17 +74,26 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
             return
         batch_status = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
         batch_status["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
-        batch_status["affected_devices"] = batch.affected_devices
+        commands_count = batch.batch_commands.count()
+        batch_status["affected_devices"] = commands_count
+        batch_status["skipped_count"] = len(
+            batch_status.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {}
+        )
+        batch_status["skipped_preview"] = batch.get_skipped_preview()
         try:
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
             page = 1
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
-        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
+        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
+        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[
+            start:commands_end
+        ]
         commands = []
         for command in page_commands:
             row = CommandSerializer(command).data
+            row.pop("input", None)
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
             row["output"] = command.output_preview
@@ -88,13 +101,16 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
                 localtime(command.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
             )
             commands.append(row)
+        commands += batch.get_skipped_rows(
+            max(0, start - commands_count), max(0, end - commands_count)
+        )
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
                 {
                     "type": "batch_state",
                     "batch_status": batch_status,
                     "commands": commands,
-                    "total_rows": batch.total_devices,
+                    "total_rows": commands_count + batch_status["skipped_count"],
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 5205fef92..e63a48708 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -94,8 +94,9 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         blank=True,
                         default=dict,
                         help_text=(
-                            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
-                            "devices that were skipped during command creation."
+                            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the "
+                            "validation error that caused it to be skipped during "
+                            "command creation."
                         ),
                         null=True,
                         verbose_name="skipped devices",
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index c77bfe3fa..369101406 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@
   border-collapse: collapse;
   /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
   --device-column: 23%;
-  --status-column: 13%;
+  --status-column: 15%;
   --modified-column: 15%;
 }
 .results-table th:nth-child(1),
@@ -117,6 +117,9 @@
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
+.skipped-devices-note {
+  margin: 1em 0 0;
+}
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 453ef4eca..b5ae5046b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ django.jQuery(function ($) {
     if (data.type === "command_update") {
       handleCommandMessage($, data);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_status") {
-      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data);
+      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, batchCommandWebSocket);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_state") {
       handleBatchStateMessage($, data);
     }
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
   renderCommand($, data);
 }
 
-function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
+function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, websocket) {
   const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
   if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
     $status
@@ -67,15 +67,47 @@ function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
       .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
       .text(data.status_display);
   }
-  if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
-    const $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
-    if ($list.length) {
-      const $first = $list.contents().first();
-      if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
-        $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
-      }
+  updateSkippedDevices($, data);
+  updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+  const $table = $("#result_list");
+  if (
+    websocket &&
+    data.skipped_count &&
+    data.skipped_count !== $table.data("skippedCount")
+  ) {
+    $table.data("skippedCount", data.skipped_count);
+    requestCurrentState($, websocket);
+  }
+}
+
+function updateSkippedDevices($, data) {
+  if (!data.skipped_count) {
+    return;
+  }
+  let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+  if (!$list.length) {
+    const $readonly = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .readonly");
+    if (!$readonly.length) {
+      return;
     }
+    $list = $("<div>").addClass("skipped-devices-list");
+    $readonly.empty().append($list);
   }
+  $list.empty().append(document.createTextNode(String(data.skipped_count)));
+  const rows = data.skipped_preview || [];
+  rows.forEach(function (row, index) {
+    if (index === rows.length - 1 && rows.length < data.skipped_count) {
+      $list.append($("<br>")).append(document.createTextNode("\u2026"));
+    }
+    $list
+      .append($("<br>"))
+      .append(document.createTextNode(row.device_name + ": " + row.output));
+  });
+  $list.append(
+    $("<p>")
+      .addClass("skipped-devices-note")
+      .text(gettext("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device.")),
+  );
 }
 
 function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
@@ -154,16 +186,24 @@ function insertRow($, data) {
     "data-device-pk": data.device,
     class: rowClass,
   });
-  $row.append(
-    $("<td>").append(
-      $("<a>")
-        .attr({
-          href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
-          class: "device-link",
-        })
-        .text(data.device_name),
-    ),
-  );
+  if (data.is_skipped) {
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<span>").addClass("device-name-disabled").text(data.device_name),
+      ),
+    );
+  } else {
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr({
+            href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
+            class: "device-link",
+          })
+          .text(data.device_name),
+      ),
+    );
+  }
   $row.append(
     $("<td>").append(
       $("<span>")
@@ -226,7 +266,11 @@ function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
     $("<span>")
       .addClass("current-page")
       .text(
-        gettext("Page") + " " + currentPage + " " + gettext("of") + " " + totalPages,
+        interpolate(
+          gettext("Page %(current)s of %(total)s"),
+          { current: currentPage, total: totalPages },
+          true,
+        ),
       ),
   );
   if (currentPage < totalPages) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 6ac818c27..70e1f5e19 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -40,9 +40,18 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
 
   function handleTypeChange() {
     const selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    let data = null;
+    try {
+      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+    } catch (error) {
+      data = null;
+    }
     $container.empty();
     if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName);
+      renderCustomCommandField($, $container);
+      if (data && data.command) {
+        $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
+      }
       updateCustomCommandInput();
     } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
       renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
@@ -85,18 +94,9 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
       return;
     }
     handleTypeChange();
-    let data = null;
-    try {
-      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-    } catch (error) {
-      data = null;
-    }
-    if (data && data.command) {
-      $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
-    }
   });
 
-  $("#review-command-btn").on("click", function () {
+  $form.on("submit", function (event) {
     clearFieldErrors($);
     const type = $typeSelect.val();
     let hasError = false;
@@ -124,8 +124,33 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
         hasError = true;
       }
     }
-    if (!hasError) {
-      $form.submit();
+    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      const $password = $container.find("#id_password");
+      const $confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password");
+      const password = $password.val() || "";
+      const confirmPassword = $confirmPassword.val() || "";
+      if (!password || !confirmPassword) {
+        showFieldError(
+          (password ? $confirmPassword : $password).closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("This field is required."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      } else if (password.length < 6 || !$.trim(password)) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $password.closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("Your password must be at least 6 characters long"),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      } else if (password !== confirmPassword) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $confirmPassword.closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("The two password fields didn't match."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      }
+    }
+    if (hasError) {
+      event.preventDefault();
     }
   });
 }
@@ -192,7 +217,6 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
   });
 
   $form.on("submit", function () {
-    removeStoredExclusions(storageKey);
     // guards against a double click creating two mass commands
     $button.prop("disabled", true);
   });
@@ -211,15 +235,13 @@ function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
   return $hiddenInput;
 }
 
-function renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName) {
+function renderCustomCommandField($, $container) {
   const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
   const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
   $flexContainer.append(
     '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
   );
-  $flexContainer.append(
-    '<input type="text" id="id_command" name="' + fieldName + '" class="vTextField">',
-  );
+  $flexContainer.append('<input type="text" id="id_command" class="vTextField">');
   $row.append($flexContainer);
   $row.append(
     '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
@@ -305,14 +327,6 @@ function setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks) {
   }
 }
 
-function removeStoredExclusions(storageKey) {
-  try {
-    window.sessionStorage.removeItem(storageKey);
-  } catch (error) {
-    // see getStoredExclusions()
-  }
-}
-
 function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
   try {
     const storage = window.sessionStorage;
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 32c8f9441..a07f2fba4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -19,10 +19,8 @@
 {% block content %}
 {{ block.super }}
 
-<!-- Commands Section -->
 <h1 class="commands-title">{% trans "Commands" %}</h1>
 
-<!-- OpenWISP Filter Section -->
 {% if filter_specs %}
 <div id="ow-changelist-filter">
   <div class="filters-bottom">
@@ -84,7 +82,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 </div>
 {% endif %}
 
-<!-- Search Bar -->
 <div class="search-section">
   <form method="get" class="search-form">
     <svg class="search-icon" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2">
@@ -102,7 +99,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
   </form>
 </div>
 
-<!-- Results Table -->
 <div class="results-container">
   <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
     data-device-url="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
@@ -119,14 +115,14 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </thead>
     <tbody>
       {% for command in commands %}
-      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device_pk }}"
-          data-device-pk="{{ command.device_pk }}"
+      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device }}"
+          data-device-pk="{{ command.device }}"
           class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
         <td>
           {% if command.is_skipped %}
           <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
           {% else %}
-          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device_pk %}#command_set-2-group"
+          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device %}#command_set-2-group"
             class="device-link" aria-label="{% trans 'View recent commands' %} {{ command.device_name }}">
             {{ command.device_name }}
           </a>
@@ -148,7 +144,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </tbody>
   </table>
 
-  <!-- Results Count -->
   {% if paginator %}
   <p class="paginator">
     {% blocktrans count counter=paginator.count %}
@@ -158,7 +153,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
   </p>
   {% endif %}
 
-  <!-- Pagination -->
   {% if page_obj.has_other_pages %}
   <div class="pagination">
     <span class="step-links">
@@ -168,7 +162,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
       </a>
       {% endif %}
       <span class="current-page">
-        {% trans 'Page' %} {{ page_obj.number }} {% trans 'of' %} {{ page_obj.paginator.num_pages }}
+        {% blocktrans with current=page_obj.number total=page_obj.paginator.num_pages %}Page {{ current }} of {{ total }}{% endblocktrans %}
       </span>
       {% if page_obj.has_next %}
       <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.next_page_number }}">
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index ec92e55e9..040d826f6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Command' %}</label>
-      <div class="readonly"><code>{{ command_description }}</code></div>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ command_description }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
   {% endif %}
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</label>
-      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "F j, Y, P" %}</div>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "DATETIME_FORMAT" %}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
 </fieldset>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 0aec77986..91072fd7e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -58,92 +58,26 @@
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
-      <div class="form-row field-type{% if form.type.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.type.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.type.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.type }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.type.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.type.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.type.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.type.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.type %}
       <div id="command-input-container"></div>
       {{ form.input }}
       {% if form.input.errors %}
       <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
       {% endif %}
-      <div class="form-row field-label{% if form.label.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.label.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.label.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.label }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.label.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.label.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.label.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.label.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-notes{% if form.notes.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.notes.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.notes.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.notes }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.notes.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.notes.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.notes.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.notes.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.label %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.notes %}
     </fieldset>
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Targets" %}</h2>
-      <div class="form-row field-organization{% if form.organization.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.organization.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.organization.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.organization }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.organization.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.organization.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.organization.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.organization.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-location{% if form.location.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.location.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.location.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.location }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.location.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.location.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.location.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.location.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-group{% if form.group.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.group.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.group.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.group }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.group.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.group.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.group.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.group.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.organization %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.location %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.group %}
     </fieldset>
 
     <div class="submit-row">
       <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans "Cancel" %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
+      <button type="submit" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
     </div>
   </form>
 </div>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..bec22c341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+<div class="form-row field-{{ field.name }}{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+  {{ field.errors }}
+  <div class="flex-container">
+    {{ field.label_tag }}
+    {{ field }}
+  </div>
+  {% if field.help_text %}
+  <div class="help"{% if field.id_for_label %} id="{{ field.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+    <div>{{ field.help_text }}</div>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+</div>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
index ef46278f2..01351230e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ def test_create_command_without_connection(self):
         )
         self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
         self.assertIn(
-            "Device has no credentials assigned.",
+            "Device has no credentials assigned",
             response.data["device"][0],
         )
 
@@ -1065,7 +1065,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "devices": [str(d.pk) for d in devices],
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(16):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(15):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -1102,7 +1102,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "group": str(group.pk),
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(15):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(14):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -1128,7 +1128,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "label": "test-label",
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(13):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(12):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -2258,7 +2258,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
             )
             command_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=batch)
             self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_a).exists())
@@ -2318,7 +2318,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
@@ -2360,7 +2360,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index fc45ff2d6..963f625b9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ def test_command_validation(self):
             self.assertIn("device", exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
                 exception.message_dict["device"],
-                ["Device has no credentials assigned."],
+                ["Device has no credentials assigned"],
             )
 
     def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
@@ -646,7 +646,7 @@ def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
                 command.clean()
             self.assertIn("device", ctx.exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
-                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated."]
+                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated"]
             )
 
     @tag("skip_prod")
@@ -1141,7 +1141,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_deactivated_device(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
 
     def test_batch_command_create_commands_no_credentials(self):
@@ -1157,7 +1157,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_no_credentials(self):
         self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
         self.assertIn(
             "Device has no credentials assigned",
-            batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+            batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
         )
 
     def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
@@ -1192,7 +1192,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                 self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
                 self.assertIn(
                     '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
-                    batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)][0],
+                    batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
                 )
                 db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
                 self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_devices, db_batch.skipped_devices)
@@ -1238,12 +1238,12 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device_no_creds.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["error"],
             )
             self.assertIn(str(device_deactivated.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_deactivated.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_deactivated.pk)]["error"],
             )
             self.assertNotIn(str(device_ok.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
@@ -1720,7 +1720,9 @@ def test_batch_command_calculate_and_update_status(self):
 
         with self.subTest("all success with skipped shows failed"):
             batch3 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
-            batch3.skipped_devices = {str(device.pk): ["no credentials"]}
+            batch3.skipped_devices = {
+                str(device.pk): {"name": device.name, "error": "no credentials"}
+            }
             batch3.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
             Command.objects.create(
                 batch_command=batch3,
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 675ddac9e..19896a465 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -100,8 +100,9 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         default=dict,
                         verbose_name="skipped devices",
                         help_text=(
-                            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
-                            "devices that were skipped during command creation."
+                            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the "
+                            "validation error that caused it to be skipped during "
+                            "command creation."
                         ),
                     ),
                 ),

From b38633db323318fc5b3c14f42d1d4f34ff8915d6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 18 Aug 2026 19:55:20 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 10/27] [fix] Made skipped devices show first 2 and the last
 device erros only

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py                      | 4 +---
 .../connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css       | 3 ---
 .../connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js         | 5 -----
 3 files changed, 1 insertion(+), 11 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 2862b8844..31537082e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -755,10 +755,8 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if len(rows) < len(obj.skipped_devices):
             lines.insert(-1, "\u2026")
         return format_html(
-            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}'
-            '<p class="skipped-devices-note">{}</p></div>',
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
-            _("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device."),
         )
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 369101406..1661ee6bb 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -117,9 +117,6 @@
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
-.skipped-devices-note {
-  margin: 1em 0 0;
-}
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index b5ae5046b..66668e3ff 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -103,11 +103,6 @@ function updateSkippedDevices($, data) {
       .append($("<br>"))
       .append(document.createTextNode(row.device_name + ": " + row.output));
   });
-  $list.append(
-    $("<p>")
-      .addClass("skipped-devices-note")
-      .text(gettext("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device.")),
-  );
 }
 
 function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {

From 13646ec333171ff5ecc1e0789c7e495059261bc6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 20 Aug 2026 07:40:16 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 11/27] [fix] Addressed review comments

- give the confirm page device admin its own readonly_fields copy
- reject an execution whose wizard token or device set no longer matches
- check the view permission in the batch websocket consumer instead of add
- defer batch websocket broadcasts to transaction commit and log failures
- take the affected devices count from the creating loop instead of a query
- cap the command output preview to the last 100 characters
- build the batch filters from skipped devices too and page them lazily
- preserve server totals on the change page whenever a filter is active
- link live rows to the device recent commands section
- scope the group and location choices to the selected organization
- use the command schema widget for the mass command input, so any
  registered command type can be configured, reviewed and executed
- keep its generated fields and validation errors consistent with the
  rest of the admin form
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 193 +++++++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  47 ++--
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  13 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |   7 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |  56 +++++
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  17 +-
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 233 ++++++------------
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |   1 +
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |   6 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py     |  28 +++
 10 files changed, 333 insertions(+), 268 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 31537082e..c321f92e1 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import hashlib
 import logging
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
@@ -9,7 +10,7 @@
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
 from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
-from django.db.models import Count
+from django.db.models import Count, Q
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
@@ -26,7 +27,12 @@
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
-from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
+from .widgets import (
+    BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
+    CommandSchemaWidget,
+    CredentialsSchemaWidget,
+    OrganizationScopedSelect,
+)
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -36,7 +42,6 @@
 BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
 DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
-DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
 Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
 Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
 
@@ -68,8 +73,11 @@ class Meta:
             "location",
         ]
         widgets = {
+            "label": forms.TextInput(attrs={"class": "vTextField"}),
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
+            "input": BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
+            "group": OrganizationScopedSelect,
+            "location": OrganizationScopedSelect,
         }
 
     class Media:
@@ -155,7 +163,8 @@ def _pk(value):
             # it a wizard would inherit the devices unselected by a previous
             # one. It has to be issued here rather than by the browser,
             # because the session is shared between tabs and sessionStorage
-            # is not. Not a security token: it only scopes a storage key.
+            # is not. It is also submitted back on execution, which runs
+            # only the wizard the confirm page was rendered with.
             "token": uuid4().hex,
             "type": self.cleaned_data["type"],
             "label": self.cleaned_data["label"],
@@ -465,6 +474,11 @@ def get_urls(self):
                 self.admin_site.admin_view(self.confirm_command_view),
                 name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_confirm",
             ),
+            path(
+                "ui/schema.json",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.schema_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_schema",
+            ),
         ] + super().get_urls()
 
     def _check_add_permission(self, request):
@@ -472,6 +486,23 @@ def _check_add_permission(self, request):
         if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
             raise PermissionDenied
 
+    def schema_view(self, request):
+        """Returns the schemas of the command types the wizard offers.
+
+        The type choices are the union over the organizations the user
+        manages, so the schemas are too: the editor fetches them once on
+        page load, before an organization has been picked.
+        """
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            return JsonResponse(Command.get_org_schema())
+        schemas = {}
+        for organization_id in request.user.organizations_managed:
+            schemas.update(
+                Command.get_org_schema(organization_id=organization_id) or {}
+            )
+        return JsonResponse(schemas)
+
     def execute_command_view(self, request):
         """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
         A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
@@ -512,6 +543,8 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         if not wizard:
             return self._restart(request)
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        wizard["devices_digest"] = self._devices_digest(devices)
+        request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
         device_admin = self.get_device_admin(devices)
         # changelist_view() assembles the whole changelist context (cl,
         # media, pagination) and renders the change_list_template of the
@@ -535,7 +568,7 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         device_admin_class = type(
             "BatchCommandDeviceAdmin",
             (BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin, registered),
-            {},
+            {"readonly_fields": list(registered.readonly_fields)},
         )
         return device_admin_class(Device, self.admin_site, devices=devices)
 
@@ -588,6 +621,13 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
             )
         return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
 
+    def _devices_digest(self, devices):
+        """Identifies the set of devices a confirm page was rendered with,
+        so that only the reviewed set is executed.
+        """
+        pks = sorted(str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
+        return hashlib.sha256(",".join(pks).encode()).hexdigest()
+
     def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
         targets = []
         for model, key in (
@@ -608,21 +648,47 @@ def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
             "device_changelist_template": self.get_device_changelist_template(),
             "wizard": wizard,
             "command_type_display": command_types.get(wizard["type"], wizard["type"]),
-            "command_description": (wizard.get("input") or {}).get("command", ""),
+            "command_description": self._describe_input(wizard.get("input")),
             "targets_display": ", ".join(targets) if targets else _("All devices"),
             "device_count": devices.count(),
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
 
+    def _describe_input(self, command_input):
+        """Renders the submitted input for the review step, so that every
+        registered command type is shown and not only custom ones.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(command_input, dict):
+            return ""
+        if "command" in command_input:
+            return command_input["command"]
+        return ", ".join(
+            f"{key}: {value}"
+            for key, value in command_input.items()
+            if "password" not in key
+        )
+
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
-        The wizard is popped first, so a double submit cannot create the
-        batch twice: the second request finds nothing and restarts.
+        Only the wizard the confirm page was rendered with is executed, and
+        it is removed before the batch is created, so a double submit finds
+        nothing and restarts.
         """
-        wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
-        if not wizard:
+        wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
+        if not wizard or request.POST.get("token") != wizard.get("token"):
             return self._restart(request)
+        del request.session[self.session_key]
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        if self._devices_digest(devices) != wizard.get("devices_digest"):
+            request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
+            self.message_user(
+                request,
+                _("The targeted devices changed, please review them again."),
+                messages.WARNING,
+            )
+            return redirect(
+                f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+            )
         # The confirm page only lists the devices matched on the execute
         # page, so the selection can only ever remove from that set: the
         # browser never supplies a device to add.
@@ -736,14 +802,6 @@ def affected_devices(self, obj):
     affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
     affected_devices.admin_order_field = "_affected_devices"
 
-    def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
-        if not hasattr(obj, "_skipped_devices_cache"):
-            obj._skipped_devices_cache = {
-                str(device.pk): device
-                for device in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-            }
-        return obj._skipped_devices_cache
-
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
@@ -797,13 +855,16 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
 
         filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
+        batch_devices = Device.objects.filter(
+            Q(command__batch_command=obj) | Q(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        )
+
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
             _("location"),
             "location_id",
             current_location or "",
-            Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
-            .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
+            batch_devices.exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
             .values_list(
                 "devicelocation__location__id",
                 "devicelocation__location__name",
@@ -819,10 +880,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             _("device group"),
             "group_id",
             current_group or "",
-            Device.objects.filter(
-                command__batch_command=obj,
-                group__isnull=False,
-            )
+            batch_devices.filter(group__isnull=False)
             .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
             .distinct(),
             _make_choice,
@@ -836,9 +894,9 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
                 _("organization"),
                 "organization_id",
                 current_org or "",
-                Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
-                .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
-                .distinct(),
+                batch_devices.values_list(
+                    "organization__id", "organization__name"
+                ).distinct(),
                 _make_choice,
             )
             if org_spec:
@@ -869,7 +927,7 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
-    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
+    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_items, page_param, per_page=None):
         """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
         Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
         so the newest is always last and the change page can append results
@@ -878,7 +936,7 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=Non
         """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         commands_count = commands_qs.count()
-        total = commands_count + len(skipped_rows)
+        total = commands_count + len(skipped_items)
         paginator = Paginator(range(total), per_page)
         try:
             page_obj = paginator.page(page_param or 1)
@@ -892,7 +950,10 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=Non
         ]
         skipped_start = max(0, start - commands_count)
         skipped_end = max(0, end - commands_count)
-        rows += skipped_rows[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        rows += [
+            BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in skipped_items[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        ]
         return page_obj, paginator, rows
 
     def _get_active_filters(self, request):
@@ -921,47 +982,29 @@ def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
         return qs
 
     def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
-        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        location_id = filters["location_id"]
-        if location_id:
-            device_locations = {
-                str(pk)
-                for pk in DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                    content_object_id__in=pks,
-                    location_id=location_id,
-                ).values_list("content_object_id", flat=True)
-            }
-        else:
-            device_locations = None
-        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
-        rows = []
-        for pk_str, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = devices.get(pk_str)
-            if not device:
-                if not any(
-                    (
-                        filters["organization_id"],
-                        filters["group_id"],
-                        location_id,
-                    )
-                ) and (
-                    not filters["q"] or filters["q"].lower() in skipped["name"].lower()
-                ):
-                    rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
-                continue
-            if (
-                filters["organization_id"]
-                and str(device.organization_id) != filters["organization_id"]
-            ):
-                continue
-            if filters["group_id"] and str(device.group_id) != filters["group_id"]:
-                continue
-            if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
-                continue
-            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in skipped["name"].lower():
-                continue
-            rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
-        return rows
+        related = (
+            filters["organization_id"],
+            filters["group_id"],
+            filters["location_id"],
+        )
+        matching = None
+        if any(related):
+            organization_id, group_id, location_id = related
+            devices = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+            if organization_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(organization_id=organization_id)
+            if group_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(group_id=group_id)
+            if location_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(devicelocation__location_id=location_id)
+            matching = {str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True)}
+        query = filters["q"].lower() if filters["q"] else ""
+        return [
+            (pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items()
+            if (matching is None or pk in matching)
+            and (not query or query in skipped["name"].lower())
+        ]
 
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         extra_context = extra_context or {}
@@ -970,11 +1013,11 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
             commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
-            skipped_rows = []
+            skipped_items = []
             if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
-                skipped_rows = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
+                skipped_items = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
-                commands_qs, skipped_rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
+                commands_qs, skipped_items, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 37dbcfc7c..7c2485527 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+import logging
+
 from asgiref.sync import async_to_sync
 from channels import layers
 from django.apps import AppConfig
@@ -15,6 +17,8 @@
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
 
 class ConnectionConfig(AppConfig):
     name = "openwisp_controller.connection"
@@ -74,16 +78,27 @@ def ready(self):
     def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
         transaction.on_commit(lambda: cls._launch_update_config(kwargs["device"]))
 
+    @classmethod
+    def _send_batch_update(cls, group, data):
+        def send():
+            try:
+                async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
+                    group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data}
+                )
+            except Exception:
+                logger.exception("Failed to send update to %s", group)
+
+        transaction.on_commit(send)
+
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
         if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
             return
-        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
         if not created:
-            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+            async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
                 f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
@@ -97,24 +112,25 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
                 localtime(instance.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
             )
             batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
-            batch = instance.batch_command
-            affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
-            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
-                batch.skipped_devices or {}
-            )
             if created:
-                batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
-            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
-                {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
+                batch = instance.batch_command
+                index = getattr(instance, "_batch_index", None)
+                if index is None:
+                    index = batch.affected_devices - 1
+                affected_devices = index + 1
+                batch_data["index"] = index
+                batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+                batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                    batch.skipped_devices or {}
+                )
+            cls._send_batch_update(
+                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}", batch_data
             )
 
     @classmethod
     def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
 
-        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
         batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
@@ -124,10 +140,7 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
         batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
         batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
-        async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-            f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
-        )
+        cls._send_batch_update(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
 
     @classmethod
     def _launch_update_config(cls, device):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index d276528a6..d9ac28828 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -548,9 +548,13 @@ def output_preview(self):
         lines = (self.output or "").strip().splitlines()
         if not lines:
             return ""
-        if len(lines) == 1:
-            return lines[0]
-        return "… " + lines[-1]
+        max_length = 100
+        line = lines[-1]
+        truncated = len(lines) > 1
+        if len(line) > max_length:
+            line = line[-max_length:]
+            truncated = True
+        return f"… {line}" if truncated else line
 
     @property
     def is_custom(self):
@@ -992,6 +996,7 @@ def create_commands(self):
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
         device_pks = []
+        created_count = 0
         for device in self.resolve_devices().iterator():
             device_pks.append(device.pk)
             command = Command(
@@ -1002,7 +1007,9 @@ def create_commands(self):
             )
             try:
                 command.full_clean()
+                command._batch_index = created_count
                 command.save()
+                created_count += 1
             except ValidationError as e:
                 self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
                     "name": device.name,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 9b2ac78f6..8fc6b34d4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -35,9 +35,10 @@ def is_user_authorized(self):
         user = self.scope["user"]
         if user.is_superuser:
             return True
-        # a mass command cannot be changed or deleted from the admin
-        if not (
-            user.is_staff and self._user_has_permissions(change=False, delete=False)
+        opts = self.model._meta
+        if not user.is_staff or not any(
+            user.has_perm(f"{opts.app_label}.{action}_{opts.model_name}")
+            for action in ("view", "change")
         ):
             return False
         organization_id = (
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 1661ee6bb..bf5307b85 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -250,3 +250,59 @@
   gap: 0.5rem;
   justify-content: flex-end;
 }
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper > fieldset.module {
+  background: none;
+  border: none;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper > fieldset > h2,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor h3 {
+  display: none !important;
+}
+.execute-batch-command.no-command-type .jsoneditor-wrapper {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command #main .jsoneditor-wrapper div.jsoneditor .form-row {
+  display: flex;
+  flex-wrap: wrap;
+  padding: 15px;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper div.jsoneditor label {
+  font-weight: bold;
+  margin-left: 0;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row > .help {
+  flex-basis: 100%;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .errorlist {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .errorlist {
+  display: block;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors input,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors select,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors textarea {
+  border-color: var(--border-color);
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors input,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors select,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors textarea {
+  border-color: var(--ow-color-danger);
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row > ul.errorlist {
+  order: -1;
+  flex-basis: calc(100% - 160px);
+  margin-left: 160px;
+  padding-left: 10px;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input.errors {
+  display: block !important;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input.errors .flex-container {
+  display: none;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 66668e3ff..e63da7d31 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
     const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
     if ($row.length) {
       updateRow($, $row, command);
-    } else {
+    } else if (!hasActiveFilters()) {
       insertRow($, command);
     }
   });
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ function renderCommand($, data) {
 function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
   // with a filter on, the pushed totals are unfiltered and page boundaries
   // cannot be worked out
-  if (getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+  if (hasActiveFilters()) {
     return false;
   }
   if (data.index == null) {
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
     }
   }
   // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
-  if (totalRows == null || getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+  if (totalRows == null || hasActiveFilters()) {
     return;
   }
   const $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
@@ -283,13 +283,22 @@ function getDeviceChangeUrl($, devicePk) {
   if (!template) {
     return "#";
   }
-  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk);
+  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk) + "#command_set-2-group";
 }
 
 function getActiveStatusFilter($) {
   return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
 }
 
+function hasActiveFilters() {
+  const params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+  return ["q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id"].some(
+    function (name) {
+      return !!params.get(name);
+    },
+  );
+}
+
 function getCurrentPage($) {
   return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 70e1f5e19..b52577c2c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 "use strict";
 
-const COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-const COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
 const EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
 const WIZARD_SELECTS = "#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location";
+const COMMAND_EDITOR_ID = "id_input_jsoneditor";
 
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
   initExecuteCommandForm($);
@@ -16,64 +15,9 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
     return;
   }
   const $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-  const $container = $("#command-input-container");
-  const fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
-  const $hiddenInput = getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName);
 
-  function updateCustomCommandInput() {
-    const command = $.trim($container.find("#id_command").val());
-    $hiddenInput.val(command ? JSON.stringify({ command: command }) : "");
-  }
-
-  function updateChangePasswordInput() {
-    const password = $container.find("#id_password").val();
-    const confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password").val();
-    $hiddenInput.val(
-      password && confirmPassword
-        ? JSON.stringify({
-            password: password,
-            confirm_password: confirmPassword,
-          })
-        : "",
-    );
-  }
-
-  function handleTypeChange() {
-    const selected = $typeSelect.val();
-    let data = null;
-    try {
-      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-    } catch (error) {
-      data = null;
-    }
-    $container.empty();
-    if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      renderCustomCommandField($, $container);
-      if (data && data.command) {
-        $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
-      }
-      updateCustomCommandInput();
-    } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
-      updateChangePasswordInput();
-    } else {
-      $hiddenInput.val("");
-    }
-  }
-
-  // a new mass command starts here, so the devices unselected in an earlier
-  // one which was configured but never executed are dropped
   clearAbandonedExclusions();
 
-  $container.on("input", "#id_command", updateCustomCommandInput);
-  $container.on(
-    "input",
-    "#id_password, #id_confirm_password",
-    updateChangePasswordInput,
-  );
-  $typeSelect.on("change", handleTypeChange);
-  handleTypeChange();
-
   $(WIZARD_SELECTS).select2({
     theme: "default",
     placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
@@ -81,8 +25,11 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
     width: "resolve",
   });
 
-  // admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back
-  // restores the form values after select2 has rendered its labels
+  initOrganizationScope($);
+  initCommandInput($, $typeSelect);
+
+  // admin pages are served no-store, so a back navigation restores the field
+  // values after select2 has already rendered its labels
   $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
     $(WIZARD_SELECTS).each(function () {
       const $field = $(this);
@@ -90,10 +37,6 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
         $field.trigger("change.select2");
       }
     });
-    if (!$typeSelect.val()) {
-      return;
-    }
-    handleTypeChange();
   });
 
   $form.on("submit", function (event) {
@@ -114,54 +57,81 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
       );
       hasError = true;
     }
-    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      const command = $container.find("#id_command").val();
-      if (!$.trim(command || "")) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $container.find(".form-row").first(),
-          gettext("This field is required."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      }
-    }
-    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      const $password = $container.find("#id_password");
-      const $confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password");
-      const password = $password.val() || "";
-      const confirmPassword = $confirmPassword.val() || "";
-      if (!password || !confirmPassword) {
-        showFieldError(
-          (password ? $confirmPassword : $password).closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("This field is required."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      } else if (password.length < 6 || !$.trim(password)) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $password.closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("Your password must be at least 6 characters long"),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      } else if (password !== confirmPassword) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $confirmPassword.closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("The two password fields didn't match."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      }
+    if (showCommandErrors($)) {
+      hasError = true;
     }
     if (hasError) {
       event.preventDefault();
+      event.stopImmediatePropagation();
     }
   });
 }
 
+// mirrors checkInputIsValid() in commands.js: the editor renders its errors as
+// soon as it is built, so they are kept hidden until the form is submitted
+function showCommandErrors($) {
+  const editor = (django._jsonEditors || {})[COMMAND_EDITOR_ID];
+  if (!editor) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const errors = editor.validate();
+  // a field is redisplayed only when it was edited or when "show_errors"
+  // changed since the last call, "always" skips both checks
+  editor.options.show_errors = "always";
+  editor.root.showValidationErrors(errors);
+  $("#" + COMMAND_EDITOR_ID).addClass("command-errors");
+  return errors.length > 0;
+}
+
+// with no type the editor is handed the whole schema map and renders it as a
+// generic root object
+function initCommandInput($, $typeSelect) {
+  function toggle() {
+    $(document.body).toggleClass("no-command-type", !$typeSelect.val());
+    // the container is reused, its errors belong to the previous type
+    $("#" + COMMAND_EDITOR_ID).removeClass("command-errors");
+  }
+
+  $typeSelect.on("change", toggle);
+  toggle();
+}
+
+function initOrganizationScope($) {
+  const $organization = $("#id_organization");
+  const fields = ["#id_group", "#id_location"];
+  fields.forEach(function (selector) {
+    $(selector).data("allOptions", $(selector).find("option").clone());
+  });
+
+  function applyScope() {
+    const organizationId = $organization.val() || "";
+    fields.forEach(function (selector) {
+      const $field = $(selector);
+      const current = $field.val();
+      const $options = $field.data("allOptions").filter(function () {
+        const value = $(this).attr("value");
+        return (
+          !value ||
+          !organizationId ||
+          $(this).attr("data-organization-id") === organizationId
+        );
+      });
+      $field.empty().append($options.clone());
+      $field.val($options.filter('[value="' + current + '"]').length ? current : "");
+      $field.trigger("change.select2");
+    });
+  }
+
+  $organization.on("change", applyScope);
+  applyScope();
+}
+
 function initDeviceSelection($) {
   const $form = $("#execute-form");
   if (!$form.length) {
     return;
   }
-  // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so the key carries the
-  // token of this mass command to stop a new one inheriting its exclusions
+  // sessionStorage outlives the wizard, so the key is namespaced by its token
   const storageKey = EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
   const $table = $("#result_list");
   const $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
@@ -204,8 +174,7 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
     updateSelectionSummary();
   });
 
-  // only the devices listed on the current page are toggled, the ones the
-  // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+  // devices the user cannot see are never toggled implicitly
   $table.on("change", "#select-all-devices", function () {
     const checked = this.checked;
     $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
@@ -226,62 +195,6 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
   updateSelectionSummary();
 }
 
-function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
-  let $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
-  if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-    $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-    $form.append($hiddenInput);
-  }
-  return $hiddenInput;
-}
-
-function renderCustomCommandField($, $container) {
-  const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $flexContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
-  );
-  $flexContainer.append('<input type="text" id="id_command" class="vTextField">');
-  $row.append($flexContainer);
-  $row.append(
-    '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
-      gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
-      "</div></div>",
-  );
-  $container.append($row);
-}
-
-function renderChangePasswordFields($, $container) {
-  const $passwordRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $passwordContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $passwordContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_password" class="required">' + gettext("New password") + "</label>",
-  );
-  $passwordContainer.append(
-    '<input type="password" id="id_password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-  );
-  $passwordRow.append($passwordContainer);
-  $passwordRow.append(
-    '<div class="help" id="id_password_helptext"><div>' +
-      gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
-      "</div></div>",
-  );
-  $container.append($passwordRow);
-
-  const $confirmRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $confirmContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $confirmContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_confirm_password" class="required">' +
-      gettext("Confirm password") +
-      "</label>",
-  );
-  $confirmContainer.append(
-    '<input type="password" id="id_confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-  );
-  $confirmRow.append($confirmContainer);
-  $container.append($confirmRow);
-}
-
 function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
   const $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
   if (!$header.length || $header.find("#select-all-devices").length) {
@@ -296,7 +209,6 @@ function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
   );
 }
 
-// rows are rendered selected by the server, untick the ones excluded earlier
 function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
   $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
     const $checkbox = $(this);
@@ -304,8 +216,7 @@ function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
   });
 }
 
-// exclusions are kept in sessionStorage because turning a page of the device
-// table is an ordinary page load, which would otherwise forget them
+// paging the device table is an ordinary page load, which would forget them
 function getStoredExclusions($, storageKey) {
   const stored = {};
   try {
@@ -343,7 +254,7 @@ function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
 
 function clearFieldErrors($) {
   $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
-  $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
+  $(".form-row .errorlist").not(".jsoneditor .errorlist").remove();
 }
 
 function showFieldError($row, message) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 040d826f6..7401ec413 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -110,6 +110,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
   data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
   {% csrf_token %}
   <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
+  <input type="hidden" name="token" value="{{ wizard.token }}">
   <div class="submit-row">
     <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
     <button type="submit" class="default" id="execute-button">
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 91072fd7e..bcd564b44 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -59,11 +59,7 @@
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.type %}
-      <div id="command-input-container"></div>
-      {{ form.input }}
-      {% if form.input.errors %}
-      <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
-      {% endif %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.input %}
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.label %}
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.notes %}
     </fieldset>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
index 7160aa599..cda8c62ad 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 app_label = Credentials._meta.app_label
 model_name = Credentials._meta.model_name
 
@@ -46,3 +47,30 @@ def media(self):
         css = {"all": ["connection/css/command-inline.css"]}
         media = forms.Media(js=js, css=css)
         return super().media + media
+
+
+class BatchCommandSchemaWidget(CommandSchemaWidget):
+    schema_view_name = (
+        f"admin:{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}"
+        f"_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}_schema"
+    )
+
+    app_label_model = f"{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}"
+    extra_attrs = {
+        "data-schema-selector": "#id_type",
+        "data-show-errors": "never",
+        "data-options": '{"disable_properties": true}',
+    }
+
+    @property
+    def media(self):
+        return super(CommandSchemaWidget, self).media
+
+
+class OrganizationScopedSelect(forms.Select):
+    def create_option(self, name, value, *args, **kwargs):
+        option = super().create_option(name, value, *args, **kwargs)
+        instance = getattr(value, "instance", None)
+        if instance is not None:
+            option["attrs"]["data-organization-id"] = str(instance.organization_id)
+        return option

From 70457d637cbfdfdc282197b0384342c438bbd148 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 21 Aug 2026 02:59:26 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 12/27] [tests] Add mass command admin workflow tests and reach
 ~99% coverage

- cover the admin views, the API and the models of the mass command
  workflow, reaching ~99% coverage
- add selenium tests for the wizard, the review page and the mass
  command page, with their search, filters and multitenancy
---
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                |  272 +++++
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            |  683 ++++++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_api.py              |   51 +-
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  175 +++
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         | 1077 ++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py |   35 +
 6 files changed, 2272 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index d7f7f5659..12bba889f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -1,18 +1,26 @@
 from unittest import mock
+from uuid import uuid4
 
 import pytest
 from channels.db import database_sync_to_async
 from channels.testing import WebsocketCommunicator
 from django.conf import settings
+from django.contrib.auth import get_user_model
+from django.contrib.auth.models import AnonymousUser, Permission
 from django.utils import timezone
 from django.utils.module_loading import import_string
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.utils import CreateCommandMixin
 
+from .. import apps
+from ..channels.consumers import BatchCommandConsumer
 from .test_models import BaseTestModels
 
+User = get_user_model()
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+OrganizationUser = load_model("openwisp_users", "OrganizationUser")
 
 
 @pytest.mark.asyncio
@@ -107,3 +115,267 @@ async def test_multiple_connections_receive_updates_with_redis(
         assert response2 == expected_response
         await communicator1.disconnect()
         await communicator2.disconnect()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.asyncio
+@pytest.mark.django_db(transaction=True)
+class TestBatchCommandConsumer(BaseTestModels, CreateCommandMixin):
+    application = import_string(getattr(settings, "ASGI_APPLICATION"))
+    path = "ws/controller/batch-command"
+
+    async def _connect(self, pk, user=None):
+        communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
+            BatchCommandConsumer.as_asgi(), f"{self.path}/{pk}"
+        )
+        communicator.scope["url_route"] = {"kwargs": {"pk": str(pk)}}
+        if user is not None:
+            communicator.scope["user"] = user
+        connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
+        return communicator, connected
+
+    async def _connect_through_route(self, admin_client, batch):
+        session_id = admin_client.cookies["sessionid"].value
+        communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
+            self.application,
+            path=f"{self.path}/{batch.pk}",
+            headers=[(b"cookie", f"sessionid={session_id}".encode("ascii"))],
+        )
+        connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
+        return communicator, connected
+
+    async def _drain(self, communicator):
+        while not await communicator.receive_nothing():
+            await communicator.receive_json_from()
+
+    async def _receive_until(self, communicator, message_type, limit=4):
+        for _ in range(limit):
+            message = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            if message.get("type") == message_type:
+                return message
+        raise AssertionError(f"{message_type} was never received")
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _create_batch(self, organization=None, **kwargs):
+        return self._create_batch_command(organization=organization, **kwargs)
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _create_staff(self, username, org=None, codenames=(), is_staff=True):
+        user = self._create_user(
+            username=username, email=f"{username}@test.com", is_staff=is_staff
+        )
+        user.user_permissions.set(Permission.objects.filter(codename__in=codenames))
+        if org is not None:
+            OrganizationUser.objects.create(user=user, organization=org, is_admin=True)
+        return User.objects.get(pk=user.pk)
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _set_skipped(self, batch, count):
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": f"skipped{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+            for index in range(count)
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        return list(batch.skipped_devices)
+
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_authorization(self, admin_user, admin_client):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        org2 = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_org)(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect_through_route(admin_client, batch)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk)
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, AnonymousUser())
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        manager = await self._create_staff(
+            "manager", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand", "add_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        add_only = await self._create_staff(
+            "add-only", org=org, codenames=["add_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, add_only)
+        assert connected is False
+        outsider = await self._create_staff(
+            "outsider", org=org2, codenames=["view_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, outsider)
+        assert connected is False
+        non_staff = await self._create_staff(
+            "non-staff", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand"], is_staff=False
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, non_staff)
+        assert connected is False
+        # a batch without an organization spans every organization
+        shared_batch = await self._create_batch(organization=None)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(shared_batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(shared_batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(uuid4(), manager)
+        assert connected is False
+        # a rejected connection was never added to a group
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
+        self, mocked_connect, admin_user
+    ):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+                output="line one\nline two",
+            )
+        skipped_pks = await self._set_skipped(batch, 3)
+        await database_sync_to_async(batch.refresh_from_db)()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        with mock.patch.object(BatchCommandConsumer, "per_page", 2):
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1}
+            )
+            page1 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert page1["type"] == "batch_state"
+            assert page1["total_rows"] == 4
+            batch_status = page1["batch_status"]
+            assert batch_status["status_display"] == batch.get_status_display()
+            assert batch_status["affected_devices"] == 1
+            assert batch_status["skipped_count"] == 3
+            assert [row["device"] for row in batch_status["skipped_preview"]] == (
+                skipped_pks
+            )
+            assert "skipped_devices" not in batch_status
+            assert [row["device"] for row in page1["commands"]] == [
+                str(command.device_id),
+                skipped_pks[0],
+            ]
+            command_row = page1["commands"][0]
+            assert command_row["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
+            assert command_row["status_display"] == command.get_status_display()
+            assert command_row["output"] == "… line two"
+            assert command_row["modified"]
+            assert "input" not in command_row
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 2}
+            )
+            page2 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert [row["device"] for row in page2["commands"]] == skipped_pks[1:]
+            assert all(row["is_skipped"] for row in page2["commands"])
+            for page in (0, -1, "abc", None):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(
+                    {"type": "request_current_state", "page": page}
+                )
+                response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                assert response["commands"] == page1["commands"]
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state"})
+        response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+        assert response["total_rows"] == 4
+        assert [row["device"] for row in response["commands"]] == [
+            str(command.device_id)
+        ] + skipped_pks
+        # a batch deleted after the connection was accepted is not answered
+        await database_sync_to_async(BatchCommand.objects.filter(pk=batch.pk).delete)()
+        await communicator.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state"})
+        assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_invalid_messages(self, admin_user):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        with mock.patch(
+            "openwisp_controller.connection.channels.consumers.logger"
+        ) as logger:
+            for message in ("not json", "[]", '"string"', "null"):
+                await communicator.send_to(text_data=message)
+                assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+            for message in ({"type": "unknown"}, {}):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(message)
+                assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+            assert logger.warning.call_count == 6
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_updates(self, mocked_connect, admin_user):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        other_batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org, label="other")
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        other, other_connected = await self._connect(other_batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert other_connected is True
+        watcher, watcher_connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert watcher_connected is True
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+        created = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        assert created["id"] == str(command.pk)
+        assert created["index"] == 0
+        assert created["affected_devices"] == 1
+        assert created["total_rows"] == 1
+        assert created["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
+        assert "input" not in created
+        assert await self._receive_until(watcher, "command_update") == created
+        assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+        command.status = "success"
+        command.output = "done"
+        await database_sync_to_async(command.save)()
+        updated = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        assert updated["status"] == "success"
+        assert updated["output"] == "done"
+        assert "index" not in updated
+        await self._drain(communicator)
+        await self._set_skipped(batch, 2)
+        status = await self._receive_until(communicator, "batch_status")
+        assert status["skipped_count"] == 2
+        assert [row["device_name"] for row in status["skipped_preview"]] == [
+            "skipped0",
+            "skipped1",
+        ]
+        assert status["affected_devices"] == 1
+        assert status["total_rows"] == 3
+        # updates are namespaced per batch
+        assert await other.receive_nothing() is True
+        with mock.patch.object(
+            apps.layers, "get_channel_layer", side_effect=RuntimeError("no layer")
+        ), mock.patch.object(apps, "logger") as logger, mock.patch.object(
+            Command, "_schedule_command"
+        ):
+            await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            logger.exception.assert_called_once()
+        assert await database_sync_to_async(batch.batch_commands.count)() == 2
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        await watcher.disconnect()
+        await other.disconnect()
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index 379346bc2..b9a086319 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -1,19 +1,28 @@
 import json
 from unittest.mock import patch
+from uuid import uuid4
 
+from django.contrib import admin
 from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
+from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
 from django.test import TestCase, override_settings
 from django.urls import reverse
 from swapper import load_model
 
-from openwisp_controller.connection.commands import ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS
+from openwisp_controller.connection.commands import (
+    COMMANDS,
+    ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+    ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+)
 
 from ... import settings as module_settings
 from ...tests import _get_updated_templates_settings
 from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
+from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin, BatchCommandExecutionForm
 from ..connectors.ssh import Ssh
+from ..filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from ..widgets import CredentialsSchemaWidget
-from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin
+from .utils import BatchCommandMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin
 
 Template = load_model("config", "Template")
 Config = load_model("config", "Config")
@@ -22,6 +31,10 @@
 DeviceConnection = load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
 Group = load_model("openwisp_users", "Group")
+DeviceGroup = load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+Location = load_model("geo", "Location")
+DeviceLocation = load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class TestConnectionAdmin(TestAdminMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin, TestCase):
@@ -280,3 +293,669 @@ def test_notification_host_setting(self, ctx_processors=[]):
             response = self.client.get(url)
             self.assertContains(response, "https://example.com")
             self.assertNotContains(response, "owControllerApiHost = window.location")
+
+
+class TestBatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommandMixin, TestCase):
+    app_label = "connection"
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        self._create_admin()
+        self.execute_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_execute")
+        self.confirm_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_confirm")
+        self.changelist_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_changelist")
+
+    def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        device2 = self._create_device(
+            name="device2", mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:02", organization=org2
+        )
+        with self.subTest("view permission is not enough"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.client.force_login(viewer)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 403)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.confirm_url).status_code, 403)
+        with self.subTest("the operator group can reach the wizard"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            self.assertFalse(
+                BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site).has_add_permission(None)
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 200)
+        with self.subTest("a target is required for non superusers"):
+            response = self._post_execute()
+            self.assertContains(response, "Please select at least one of")
+        with self.subTest("devices of unmanaged organizations are not reachable"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            wizard["organization_id"] = str(org2.pk)
+            session = self.client.session
+            session[BatchCommandAdmin.session_key] = wizard
+            session.save()
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+        with self.subTest("superusers may target every device"):
+            self._login()
+            self._start_wizard()
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 2)
+            self.assertIn(device2, response.context["cl"].queryset)
+
+    def test_wizard_incompatible_scopes(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org, org2])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("group of another organization"):
+            response = self._post_execute(
+                organization=str(org.pk), group=str(group2.pk)
+            )
+            self.assertIn("group", response.context["form"].errors)
+        with self.subTest("location of another organization"):
+            response = self._post_execute(
+                organization=str(org.pk), location=str(location2.pk)
+            )
+            self.assertIn("location", response.context["form"].errors)
+        with self.subTest("the organization is derived from the group"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(group=str(group.pk))
+            self.assertEqual(wizard["group_id"], str(group.pk))
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 1)
+        with self.subTest("scopes which share no devices"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(
+                organization=str(org.pk),
+                group=str(group.pk),
+                location=str(location.pk),
+            )
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 0)
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(device, Device.objects.all())
+
+    def test_wizard_form_fields(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["organization"].queryset), [org])
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["group"].queryset), [group])
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["location"].queryset), [location])
+        with self.subTest("types are limited to the enabled commands"):
+            with patch.dict(ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS, {str(org.pk): ("reboot",)}):
+                form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+                choices = form.fields["type"].choices
+                self.assertEqual([value for value, _ in choices], ["", "reboot"])
+        with self.subTest("superusers are not restricted"):
+            self._login()
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            self.assertIn(group2, form.fields["group"].queryset)
+            self.assertIn(location2, form.fields["location"].queryset)
+            self.assertIn(org2, form.fields["organization"].queryset)
+
+    def test_wizard_schema_view(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_schema")
+        with self.subTest("superusers get every enabled type"):
+            self._login()
+            schemas = self.client.get(url).json()
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            choices = {value for value, _ in form.fields["type"].choices if value}
+            self.assertEqual(set(schemas), choices)
+        with self.subTest("managers get the union of their organizations"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            with patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+                {str(org.pk): {"reboot": COMMANDS["reboot"]["schema"]}},
+            ):
+                self.assertEqual(list(self.client.get(url).json()), ["reboot"])
+        with self.subTest("the add permission is required"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.client.force_login(viewer)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 403)
+
+    def test_wizard_organization_guard_survives_a_wider_queryset(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        request = self.client.get(self.execute_url).wsgi_request
+        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(
+            data={
+                "type": "custom",
+                "input": '{"command": "echo test"}',
+                "label": "test-label",
+                "notes": "",
+                "organization": "",
+                "group": str(group2.pk),
+                "location": "",
+            },
+            request=request,
+        )
+        form.fields["group"].queryset = DeviceGroup.objects.all()
+        self.assertFalse(form.is_valid())
+        self.assertEqual(form.errors["group"], ["Select a valid choice."])
+
+    def test_wizard_review_step_input(self):
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        cases = (
+            (None, ""),
+            ("not-a-mapping", ""),
+            ({"command": "uptime"}, "uptime"),
+            ({"config": "network"}, "config: network"),
+            (
+                {"service": "firewall", "action": "restart"},
+                "service: firewall, action: restart",
+            ),
+            ({"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"}, ""),
+        )
+        for command_input, expected in cases:
+            with self.subTest(str(command_input)):
+                self.assertEqual(model_admin._describe_input(command_input), expected)
+
+    def test_wizard_recovers_from_unresolvable_targets(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        with self.subTest("a confirm page without a wizard restarts"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+        with self.subTest("targets which cannot be resolved list no devices"):
+            self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            with patch.object(
+                BatchCommand, "dry_run", side_effect=ValidationError("broken")
+            ):
+                response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+                self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 0)
+        with self.subTest("a batch which disappears restarts"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            with patch.object(BatchCommand, "execute", side_effect=Device.DoesNotExist):
+                response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+
+    def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        restart_message = "Please fill in the mass command details to continue."
+        with self.subTest("no wizard in the session"):
+            response = self._post_confirm("any-token")
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+        with self.subTest("a token from another tab"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm("stale-token")
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+        with self.subTest("double submit"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+            self.assertEqual(list(BatchCommand.objects.all()), [batch])
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("the targeted devices changed"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._create_device(
+                name="late-device",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:99",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "The targeted devices changed, please review them again.",
+                self._messages(response),
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+
+    def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)]
+        devices += [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"device{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:44:0{index}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(1, 4)
+        ]
+        self._login()
+        with self.subTest("excluded devices are left out"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(wizard["token"], excluded=str(devices[-1].pk))
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[:-1]))
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("malformed entries are ignored"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(
+                wizard["token"],
+                excluded=f",not-a-uuid,,{uuid4()},{devices[0].pk},",
+            )
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[1:]))
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("excluding every device"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm(
+                wizard["token"],
+                excluded=",".join(str(device.pk) for device in devices),
+            )
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+
+    def test_changelist_multitenancy(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="other-label")
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("only managed organizations are listed"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertIn(batch, queryset)
+            self.assertNotIn(batch2, queryset)
+        with self.subTest("an unmanaged batch cannot be opened"):
+            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk])
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 302)
+        with self.subTest("superusers see every batch"):
+            self._login()
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertIn(batch, queryset)
+            self.assertIn(batch2, queryset)
+
+    def test_changelist_filters_and_search(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org, group=group, devices=[device]
+        )
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org2,
+            label="other-label",
+            type="reboot",
+            input=None,
+            status="success",
+        )
+        self._login()
+        cases = (
+            ("status", {"status": "success"}, batch2),
+            ("type", {"type": "custom"}, batch),
+            ("group", {"group_id": str(group.pk)}, batch),
+            ("search by label", {"q": "other-label"}, batch2),
+            ("search by device name", {"q": device.name}, batch),
+            ("search by group name", {"q": "group1"}, batch),
+        )
+        for name, params, expected in cases:
+            with self.subTest(name):
+                response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, params)
+                queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+                self.assertEqual(list(queryset), [expected])
+        with self.subTest("combined filters exclude everything"):
+            response = self.client.get(
+                self.changelist_url, {"status": "success", "type": "custom"}
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["cl"].queryset.count(), 0)
+        with self.subTest("affected devices is orderable and not duplicated"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"o": "5"})
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertEqual(set(queryset), {batch, batch2})
+            self.assertEqual([item._affected_devices for item in queryset], [0, 0])
+
+    def test_changelist_is_read_only(self):
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=self._get_org())
+        self._login()
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+        with self.subTest("no bulk actions"):
+            self.assertNotIn(
+                "delete_selected", model_admin.get_actions(response.wsgi_request)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("adding and deleting are disabled"):
+            self.assertFalse(model_admin.has_add_permission(response.wsgi_request))
+            self.assertFalse(
+                model_admin.has_delete_permission(response.wsgi_request, batch)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("no save buttons on the change page"):
+            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save"])
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save_and_continue"])
+
+    def _create_commands(self, batch, devices, **kwargs):
+        commands = []
+        for device in devices:
+            if not hasattr(device, "config"):
+                self._create_config(device=device)
+            connection = self._create_device_connection(
+                device=device,
+                credentials=self._create_credentials(
+                    name=f"cred-{device.name}", organization=device.organization
+                ),
+            )
+            with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                commands.append(
+                    Command.objects.create(
+                        batch_command=batch,
+                        device=device,
+                        connection=connection,
+                        type="custom",
+                        input={"command": "echo test"},
+                        **kwargs,
+                    )
+                )
+        return commands
+
+    def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)] + [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"device{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:44:0{index}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(1, 4)
+        ]
+        commands = self._create_commands(batch, devices, output="first\nlast")
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": "skipped-device", "error": "no credentials"}
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        self._login()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        with patch.object(BatchCommandAdmin, "device_commands_per_page", 3):
+            with self.subTest("first page"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [row["device_name"] for row in rows],
+                    [command.device.name for command in commands[:3]],
+                )
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["output"], "… last")
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["status_display"], "in progress")
+                self.assertFalse(rows[0]["is_skipped"])
+            with self.subTest("the page spanning commands and skipped devices"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False, True])
+                self.assertEqual(rows[-1]["device_name"], "skipped-device")
+            with self.subTest("an unusable page falls back to the first"):
+                for page in ("abc", 0, 99):
+                    response = self.client.get(url, {"page": page})
+                    self.assertEqual(response.context["page_obj"].number, 1)
+            with self.subTest("the newest command is last"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["device"], commands[-1].device.pk)
+
+    def test_change_view_filters(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        DeviceLocation.objects.create(content_object=device, location=location)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+        other_group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="skipped-group", organization=org)
+        skipped_device = self._create_device(
+            name="skipped-device",
+            mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:88",
+            organization=org,
+            group=other_group,
+        )
+        self._create_commands(batch, [device], status="success")
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(skipped_device.pk): {
+                "name": skipped_device.name,
+                "error": "no credentials",
+            }
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        self._login()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        with self.subTest("search matches commands and skipped devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": device.name}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], [device.name])
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+        with self.subTest("status skipped hides the commands"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [True])
+        with self.subTest("status success hides the skipped devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False])
+        with self.subTest("groups of skipped devices are offered as filters"):
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            titles = {
+                str(spec.title): spec for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]
+            }
+            displays = [
+                str(choice["display"]) for choice in titles["device group"].choices
+            ]
+            self.assertIn(other_group.name, displays)
+            self.assertIn(group.name, displays)
+        with self.subTest("filtering by a group keeps only its devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"group_id": str(other_group.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+        with self.subTest("filtering by location"):
+            DeviceLocation.objects.create(
+                content_object=skipped_device, location=location
+            )
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"location_id": str(location.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(row["device_name"] for row in rows),
+                sorted([device.name, "skipped-device"]),
+            )
+        with self.subTest("filtering by organization"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(row["device_name"] for row in rows),
+                sorted([device.name, "skipped-device"]),
+            )
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org2.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(rows, [])
+        with self.subTest("the organization filter is for superusers only"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            titles = [str(spec.title) for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]]
+            self.assertNotIn("organization", titles)
+            self._login()
+        with self.subTest("the search term is not an active filter"):
+            response = self.client.get(url, {"q": "anything"})
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["has_active_filters"])
+            response = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"})
+            self.assertTrue(response.context["has_active_filters"])
+
+    def test_change_view_display_fields(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        with self.subTest("organization display"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.organization_display(batch), org.name)
+            shared = self._create_batch_command(organization=None, label="shared")
+            self.assertEqual(str(model_admin.organization_display(shared)), "All")
+        with self.subTest("colored status"):
+            self.assertIn(
+                f"command-status {batch.status}", model_admin.colored_status(batch)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("formatted input"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(batch), "echo test")
+            empty_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org, label="empty", type="reboot", input=None
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(empty_batch), "-")
+            registered_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org, label="registered"
+            )
+            registered_batch.input = {"config": "network"}
+            self.assertEqual(
+                model_admin.formatted_input(registered_batch), "config: network"
+            )
+            password_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org,
+                label="password",
+                type="change_password",
+                input={"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"},
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(password_batch), "********")
+        with self.subTest("affected devices falls back to the model"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 0)
+            batch._affected_devices = 7
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 7)
+        with self.subTest("skipped devices rendering"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.display_skipped_devices(batch), "-")
+            batch.skipped_devices = {
+                str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": "failed"}
+                for index in range(12)
+            }
+            rendered = model_admin.display_skipped_devices(batch)
+            self.assertIn("12", rendered)
+            self.assertIn("device0: failed", rendered)
+            self.assertIn("…", rendered)
+        with self.subTest("commands of unmanaged organizations are hidden"):
+            device2 = self._create_device(
+                name="device-org2",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:77",
+                organization=org2,
+            )
+            self._create_commands(batch, [device2])
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+            request.user = operator
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin._get_commands(request, batch).count(), 0)
+
+    def test_changelist_filter_classes(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org2, label="other-label", type="reboot", input=None
+        )
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+        with self.subTest("type lookups are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            type_filter = TypeFilter(request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                type_filter.lookups(request, model_admin),
+                [("custom", "Custom commands")],
+            )
+        with self.subTest("type lookups list every type for superusers"):
+            self._login()
+            admin_request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+            type_filter = TypeFilter(admin_request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
+            lookups = dict(type_filter.lookups(admin_request, model_admin))
+            self.assertEqual(set(lookups), {"custom", "reboot"})
+        with self.subTest("type queryset"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"type": "reboot"})
+            self.assertEqual(list(response.context["cl"].queryset), [batch2])
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(set(response.context["cl"].queryset), {batch, batch2})
+        with self.subTest("the parameter names match the change page filters"):
+            self.assertEqual(GroupFilter.parameter_name, "group_id")
+            self.assertEqual(LocationFilter.parameter_name, "location_id")
+        with self.subTest("the filters are on the changelist"):
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            specs = {type(spec) for spec in response.context["cl"].filter_specs}
+            self.assertIn(GroupFilter, specs)
+            self.assertIn(LocationFilter, specs)
+        with self.subTest("related choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            self._create_administrator(organizations=[org])
+            self._test_multitenant_admin(
+                url=self._get_autocomplete_view_path(
+                    self.app_label, "batchcommand", "group"
+                ),
+                visible=[group.name],
+                hidden=[group2.name],
+                administrator=True,
+            )
+            self._test_multitenant_admin(
+                url=self._get_autocomplete_view_path(
+                    self.app_label, "batchcommand", "location"
+                ),
+                visible=[location.name],
+                hidden=[location2.name],
+                administrator=True,
+            )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
index 01351230e..3dc38b041 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
@@ -1254,14 +1254,33 @@ def test_superuser_batch_command_execute_without_org(self):
                         "type": "custom",
                         "input": {"command": "echo test"},
                         "label": "test-label",
-                        "devices": [str(device1.pk), str(device2.pk)],
+                        "devices": [str(device1.pk)],
                     }
                 ),
                 content_type="application/json",
             )
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 201)
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=response.data["batch"])
-            self.assertEqual(batch.devices.count(), 2)
+            self.assertEqual(batch.devices.count(), 1)
+
+        with self.subTest("execute with devices of different organizations"):
+            response = self.client.post(
+                url,
+                data=json.dumps(
+                    {
+                        "type": "custom",
+                        "input": {"command": "echo test"},
+                        "label": "test-label",
+                        "devices": [str(device1.pk), str(device2.pk)],
+                    }
+                ),
+                content_type="application/json",
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "must belong to the same organization",
+                response.data["devices"][0],
+            )
 
         with self.subTest("dry-run targets all devices"):
             response = self.client.get(url)
@@ -1270,12 +1289,19 @@ def test_superuser_batch_command_execute_without_org(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device2.pk), response.data["devices"])
 
         with self.subTest("dry-run with explicit devices"):
+            response = self.client.get(f"{url}?devices={str(device1.pk)}")
+            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+            self.assertIn(str(device1.pk), response.data["devices"])
+
+        with self.subTest("dry-run with devices of different organizations"):
             response = self.client.get(
                 f"{url}?devices={str(device1.pk)}&devices={str(device2.pk)}"
             )
-            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
-            self.assertIn(str(device1.pk), response.data["devices"])
-            self.assertIn(str(device2.pk), response.data["devices"])
+            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "must belong to the same organization",
+                response.data["devices"][0],
+            )
 
     def test_superuser_org_auto_set_from_group_and_location(self):
         org = self._get_org()
@@ -1781,12 +1807,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_org_mismatched_data_provided(self):
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
             self.assertEqual(
                 response.data,
-                {
-                    "devices": [
-                        "All devices must belong to the same "
-                        "organization as the batch command."
-                    ]
-                },
+                {"devices": ["All devices must belong to the same organization."]},
             )
 
         with self.subTest("group org mismatch"):
@@ -1872,12 +1893,7 @@ def test_batch_command_dry_run_org_mismatched_data_provided(self):
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
             self.assertEqual(
                 response.data,
-                {
-                    "devices": [
-                        "All devices must belong to the same "
-                        "organization as the batch command."
-                    ]
-                },
+                {"devices": ["All devices must belong to the same organization."]},
             )
 
         with self.subTest("group org mismatch"):
@@ -2245,7 +2261,6 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
                 "type": "custom",
                 "input": {"command": "echo test"},
                 "label": "test-label",
-                "devices": [str(device_a.pk), str(device_b.pk)],
             }
             response = self.client.post(
                 execute_url,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index 963f625b9..d3531694b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 import paramiko
 from django.contrib.auth.models import ContentType
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
+from django.db import transaction
 from django.test import TestCase, TransactionTestCase, tag
 from django.utils import timezone
 from django.utils.module_loading import import_string
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@
 
 from openwisp_utils.tests import capture_any_output, catch_signal
 
+from .. import apps
 from .. import settings as app_settings
 from ..commands import (
     COMMANDS,
@@ -525,6 +527,31 @@ def test_command_is_custom(self):
         command = Command(type="custom", input={"command": "echo test"})
         self.assertTrue(command.is_custom)
 
+    def test_command_output_preview(self):
+        with self.subTest("no output"):
+            self.assertEqual(Command(type="reboot").output_preview, "")
+            self.assertEqual(Command(type="reboot", output="").output_preview, "")
+
+        with self.subTest("single line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="all good")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "all good")
+
+        with self.subTest("single line with trailing newline"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="all good\n")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "all good")
+
+        with self.subTest("single long line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="x" * 120)
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, f"… {'x' * 100}")
+
+        with self.subTest("multiple lines"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="first\nsecond\nlast")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "… last")
+
+        with self.subTest("multiple lines with a long last line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output=f"first\n{'y' * 120}")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, f"… {'y' * 100}")
+
     def test_command_validation(self):
         dc = self._create_device_connection()
         command = Command(
@@ -1028,6 +1055,77 @@ def test_batch_command_total_devices_successful_failed(self):
             batch.batch_commands.filter(status="failed", device=device1).exists()
         )
 
+    def test_batch_command_skipped_devices(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        skipped = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+            for index in range(3)
+        }
+        pks = list(skipped)
+        batch.skipped_devices = skipped
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+
+        with self.subTest("skipped row"):
+            row = BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pks[0], skipped[pks[0]])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                row,
+                {
+                    "device": pks[0],
+                    "device_name": "device0",
+                    "status": "skipped",
+                    "status_display": "skipped",
+                    "output": "error 0",
+                    "modified": None,
+                    "is_skipped": True,
+                },
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("all rows"):
+            rows = batch.get_skipped_rows()
+            self.assertEqual([row["device"] for row in rows], pks)
+
+        with self.subTest("sliced rows"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(end=2)], pks[:2]
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)], pks[-1:]
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("preview within the limit"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_preview()], pks
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("preview above the limit"):
+            skipped = {
+                str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+                for index in range(11)
+            }
+            pks = list(skipped)
+            batch.skipped_devices = skipped
+            batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_preview()],
+                pks[:2] + pks[-1:],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("counts include skipped devices"):
+            device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+            self._create_config(device=device)
+            dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+            Command.objects.create(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                connection=dc,
+                type=batch.type,
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(batch.affected_devices, 1)
+            self.assertEqual(batch.total_devices, 12)
+
     def test_batch_command_clean_validation(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
@@ -1236,6 +1334,10 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             self.assertEqual(command_qs.count(), 1)
             self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_ok).exists())
             self.assertIn(str(device_no_creds.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["name"],
+                device_no_creds.name,
+            )
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
                 batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["error"],
@@ -1249,6 +1351,19 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
             self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_devices, db_batch.skipped_devices)
 
+    def test_batch_command_create_commands_without_explicit_devices(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch.create_commands()
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        self.assertEqual(
+            [command.device for command in batch.batch_commands.all()], [device]
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(list(batch.devices.all()), [device])
+
     def test_batch_command_resolve_devices(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         device1 = self._create_device(
@@ -1531,6 +1646,24 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_org_mismatch(self):
                 ctx.exception.message_dict["devices"][0],
             )
 
+        with self.subTest("devices of different organizations without organization"):
+            device_org1 = self._create_device(
+                name="exec-mm-dev-org1",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:97",
+            )
+            with self.assertRaises(ValidationError) as ctx:
+                BatchCommand.execute(
+                    type="custom",
+                    input={"command": "echo test"},
+                    label="test-label",
+                    devices=[device_org1, device_org2],
+                )
+            self.assertIn("devices", ctx.exception.message_dict)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "must belong to the same organization",
+                ctx.exception.message_dict["devices"][0],
+            )
+
         with self.subTest("group org mismatch"):
             group_org2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(
                 name="exec-mm-group",
@@ -1593,6 +1726,19 @@ def test_batch_command_dry_run_org_mismatch(self):
                 ctx.exception.message_dict["devices"][0],
             )
 
+        with self.subTest("devices of different organizations without organization"):
+            device_org1 = self._create_device(
+                name="dry-mm-dev-org1",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:97",
+            )
+            with self.assertRaises(ValidationError) as ctx:
+                BatchCommand.dry_run(devices=[device_org1, device_org2])
+            self.assertIn("devices", ctx.exception.message_dict)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "must belong to the same organization",
+                ctx.exception.message_dict["devices"][0],
+            )
+
         with self.subTest("group org mismatch"):
             group_org2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(
                 name="dry-mm-group",
@@ -2072,3 +2218,32 @@ def test_chunk_size(self):
                 credential = self._create_credentials(
                     name="Mocked Credential", auto_add=True, organization=org
                 )
+
+    def test_batch_command_broadcast_deferred_to_commit(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        command_opts = dict(
+            batch_command=batch,
+            device=device,
+            connection=dc,
+            type=batch.type,
+            input={"command": "echo test"},
+        )
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            with self.subTest("nothing is sent before the transaction commits"):
+                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
+                    with transaction.atomic():
+                        Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
+                        layer.assert_not_called()
+                    layer.assert_called()
+            with self.subTest("a rolled back command is never broadcast"):
+                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
+                    with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
+                        with transaction.atomic():
+                            Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
+                            raise ValueError()
+                    layer.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertEqual(batch.batch_commands.count(), 1)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 82dde1c8b..8d6221081 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1,16 +1,47 @@
 from time import sleep
+from urllib.parse import quote, urlparse
+from uuid import UUID
 
+from channels.testing import ChannelsLiveServerTestCase
+from django.apps import apps as django_apps
+from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
 from django.contrib.staticfiles.testing import StaticLiveServerTestCase
 from django.test import tag
 from django.urls import reverse
 from selenium.webdriver.common.by import By
+from selenium.webdriver.support import expected_conditions as EC
+from selenium.webdriver.support.ui import WebDriverWait
 from swapper import load_model
 
+from openwisp_users.migrations import (
+    allow_operator_view_organization,
+    create_default_groups,
+)
 from openwisp_utils.tests import SeleniumTestMixin
 
-from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin
+from ...config import migrations as config_migrations
+from ...config.tests.utils import CreateDeviceGroupMixin
+from ...geo import migrations as geo_migrations
+from ...geo.tests.utils import TestGeoMixin
+from .. import migrations as connection_migrations
+from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..commands import (
+    COMMANDS,
+    ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+    ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+    register_command,
+    unregister_command,
+)
+from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin, SshServer, _uci_show_command_callable
 
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+Device = load_model("config", "Device")
+Location = load_model("geo", "Location")
+DeviceLocation = load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+Group = load_model("openwisp_users", "Group")
+SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID = "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111"
+DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID = "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222"
 
 
 @tag("selenium_tests")
@@ -64,3 +95,1047 @@ def test_command_widget_on_device(self):
             "#tabs-container li.recent.commands",
         )
         self.assertEqual(Command.objects.count(), 1)
+
+
+@tag("selenium_tests")
+class TestBatchCommandAdmin(
+    TestGeoMixin,
+    CreateDeviceGroupMixin,
+    CreateConnectionsMixin,
+    SeleniumTestMixin,
+    ChannelsLiveServerTestCase,
+):
+    app_label = "connection"
+    config_app_label = "config"
+    object_model = Device
+    location_model = Location
+    object_location_model = DeviceLocation
+
+    @classmethod
+    def setUpClass(cls):
+        if "uci_show" not in COMMANDS:
+            register_command(
+                "uci_show",
+                {
+                    "label": "UCI show",
+                    "schema": {
+                        "title": "UCI show",
+                        "type": "object",
+                        "required": ["config"],
+                        "properties": {
+                            "config": {
+                                "type": "string",
+                                "title": "Config",
+                                "minLength": 1,
+                                "pattern": ".",
+                            }
+                        },
+                        "message": "Config cannot be empty.",
+                        "additionalProperties": False,
+                    },
+                    "callable": _uci_show_command_callable,
+                },
+            )
+            cls.addClassCleanup(unregister_command, "uci_show")
+        ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID] = (
+            "custom",
+            "reboot",
+            "change_password",
+            "uci_show",
+        )
+        ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID] = (
+            "custom",
+            "reboot",
+            "change_password",
+        )
+        for organization_id in (SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID, DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID):
+            ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA[organization_id] = {
+                command: COMMANDS[command]["schema"]
+                for command in ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[organization_id]
+            }
+            cls.addClassCleanup(
+                ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS.pop, organization_id, None
+            )
+            cls.addClassCleanup(ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA.pop, organization_id, None)
+        super().setUpClass()
+        cls.mock_ssh_server = SshServer(
+            {"root": cls._TEST_RSA_PRIVATE_KEY_PATH}
+        ).__enter__()
+        cls.addClassCleanup(cls.mock_ssh_server.__exit__)
+        cls.ssh_server.port = cls.mock_ssh_server.port
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        super().setUp()
+        self._restore_default_groups()
+        self.execute_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_execute")
+        self.confirm_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_confirm")
+        self.changelist_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_changelist")
+
+    # this is a TransactionTestCase: the flush performed after every test
+    # restores what post_migrate creates (permissions, content types) but
+    # not the rows written by data migrations, so the default groups are
+    # lost and _create_operator() would return a user without permissions
+    def _restore_default_groups(self):
+        if Group.objects.filter(name="Operator").exists():
+            return
+        models_modules = {
+            app_config.label: app_config.models_module
+            for app_config in django_apps.get_app_configs()
+        }
+        try:
+            for migration in (
+                create_default_groups,
+                allow_operator_view_organization,
+                config_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                config_migrations.assign_devicegroup_permissions_to_groups,
+                geo_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_command_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_batchcommand_permissions_to_groups,
+            ):
+                migration(django_apps, None)
+        finally:
+            for app_config in django_apps.get_app_configs():
+                app_config.models_module = models_modules[app_config.label]
+
+    def _create_devices(self, organization, count, credentials=None):
+        if credentials is None:
+            credentials = self._create_credentials(
+                organization=organization,
+                params={"username": "root", "password": "password", "port": 5555},
+            )
+        devices = []
+        for index in range(count):
+            device = self._create_device(
+                name=f"device-{index:03d}",
+                organization=organization,
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:{:02x}:{:02x}".format(
+                    index // 256, index % 256
+                ),
+            )
+            self._create_device_connection(
+                device=device,
+                credentials=credentials,
+                update_strategy=app_settings.UPDATE_STRATEGIES[0][0],
+            )
+            devices.append(device)
+        return devices
+
+    def _select2(self, field_id, text):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f"#select2-{field_id}-container"
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=".select2-container--open .select2-search__field",
+        ).send_keys(text)
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=".select2-container--open .select2-results__option--highlighted",
+            timeout=5,
+        ).click()
+        self.wait_for_invisibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".select2-container--open")
+
+    def _fill_wizard(
+        self,
+        type,
+        label,
+        organization=None,
+        group=None,
+        location=None,
+        command_input=None,
+        open_page=True,
+    ):
+        if open_page:
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "django.jQuery('#id_group, #id_location').val('').trigger('change');"
+        )
+        self._select2("id_type", type)
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#select2-id_type-container"
+            ).get_attribute("title"),
+            type,
+        )
+        for field_name, value in (command_input or {}).items():
+            field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#id_input_jsoneditor [name='root[{field_name}]']",
+                timeout=5,
+            )
+            field.clear()
+            field.send_keys(value)
+            self.assertEqual(field.get_attribute("value"), value)
+        label_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="id_label")
+        label_field.clear()
+        label_field.send_keys(label)
+        self.assertEqual(label_field.get_attribute("value"), label)
+        for field_id, target in (
+            ("id_organization", organization),
+            ("id_group", group),
+            ("id_location", location),
+        ):
+            if target:
+                self._select2(field_id, target.name)
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    self.find_element(
+                        by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f"#select2-{field_id}-container"
+                    ).get_attribute("title"),
+                    target.name,
+                )
+
+    def _open_menu_item(self, group_label, item_label):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f'.mg-head[aria-label="{group_label}"]'
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=f'.menu-group.active a.mg-link[aria-label="{item_label}"]',
+            timeout=5,
+        ).click()
+
+    def _search(self, query):
+        table = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list")
+        search_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="searchbar")
+        search_field.clear()
+        search_field.send_keys(query)
+        search_field.submit()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: f"q={quote(query)}" in driver.current_url
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(table))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _filter_by(self, title, option):
+        current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
+        tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        slug = title.replace(" ", "-")
+        filter_element = self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f".ow-filter.{slug}", wait_for="presence"
+        )
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "arguments[0].click();",
+            filter_element.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".filter-title"),
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: "ow-active" in filter_element.get_attribute("class")
+        )
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "arguments[0].click();",
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.XPATH,
+                value=(
+                    "//div[contains(@class, 'ow-filter')]"
+                    f"[contains(@class, '{slug}')]"
+                    "//div[contains(@class, 'filter-options')]"
+                    f"//a[normalize-space()='{option}']"
+                ),
+                wait_for="presence",
+            ),
+        )
+        apply_filters = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.ID, "ow-apply-filter")
+        if apply_filters:
+            apply_filters[0].click()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
+        )
+        if tables:
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _open_autocomplete_filter(self, param_name):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.XPATH,
+            value=(
+                f"//div[@id='ow-changelist-filter']//select[@name='{param_name}']"
+                "/following-sibling::span[contains(@class, 'select2')]"
+            ),
+        ).click()
+        self.wait_for_invisibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".select2-results__option.loading-results"
+        )
+
+    def _autocomplete_options(self, param_name):
+        self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
+        options = [
+            option.text
+            for option in self.find_elements(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=".select2-container--open .select2-results__option",
+            )
+        ]
+        self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#content").click()
+        return options
+
+    def _filter_by_autocomplete(self, param_name, option):
+        current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
+        tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.XPATH,
+            value=(
+                "//li[contains(@class, 'select2-results__option')]"
+                f"[normalize-space()='{option}']"
+            ),
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="ow-apply-filter").click()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
+        )
+        if tables:
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _filter_options(self, title):
+        slug = title.replace(" ", "-")
+        return [
+            option.get_attribute("textContent").strip()
+            for option in self.web_driver.find_elements(
+                By.CSS_SELECTOR, f".ow-filter.{slug} .filter-options a"
+            )
+        ]
+
+    def _changelist_labels(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-label").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _select_options(self, field_id):
+        return [
+            option.text
+            for option in self.find_elements(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#{field_id} option",
+                wait_for="presence",
+            )
+            if option.get_attribute("value")
+        ]
+
+    def _wait_for_url(self, path, timeout=None):
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, timeout or 5).until(
+            lambda driver: urlparse(driver.current_url).path == path
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(urlparse(self.web_driver.current_url).path, path)
+
+    def _wait_for_review_page(self):
+        self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".command-summary", timeout=5)
+
+    def _wait_for_batch_result(self, label, status, count):
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label=label)
+        self._wait_for_url(
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]),
+            # the test env runs celery synchronously,
+            # so 50 commands take a while
+            timeout=30,
+        )
+        self.wait_for_visibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR, "ul.messagelist li.success", timeout=5
+        )
+        self.wait_for_visibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            f".field-colored_status .command-status.{status}",
+            timeout=5,
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == [status] * count
+        )
+
+    def _rows(self):
+        return self.find_elements(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody tr")
+
+    def _device_names(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-name").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _command_device_names(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "td:first-child").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _command_statuses(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".command-status").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _summary(self):
+        summary = {}
+        for row in self.find_elements(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".command-summary .form-row"
+        ):
+            summary[row.find_element(By.TAG_NAME, "label").text] = row.find_element(
+                By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".readonly"
+            ).text
+        return summary
+
+    def test_execute_batch_command(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 5)
+        devices2 = self._create_devices(
+            org2,
+            2,
+            credentials=self._create_credentials_with_key(
+                organization=org2, port=self.ssh_server.port
+            ),
+        )
+        grouped_device, located_device, *_ = devices1
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        group2 = self._create_device_group(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = self._create_location(name="location2", organization=org2)
+        grouped_device.group = group1
+        grouped_device.full_clean()
+        grouped_device.save()
+        self._create_object_location(content_object=located_device, location=location1)
+        self.login()
+
+        with self.subTest("custom command"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Custom commands",
+                label="small-custom",
+                organization=org2,
+                command_input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Command"], "echo test")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "small-custom")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org2.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices2])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-custom", "success", 2)
+            label = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-label .readonly"
+            )
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(label.text, "small-custom")
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "echo test")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "2")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices2),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["success", "success"])
+
+        with self.subTest("reboot"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="small-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+            self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "5 devices")
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-reboot", "failed", 5)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "-")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "5")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices1),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 5)
+
+        with self.subTest("change password"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Change password",
+                label="small-password",
+                organization=org1,
+                command_input={
+                    "password": "tester123",
+                    "confirm_password": "tester123",
+                },
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Change password")
+            self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-password", "failed", 5)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Change password")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "********")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 5)
+
+        with self.subTest("device group target"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="small-group",
+                organization=org1,
+                group=group1,
+            )
+            group_options = self._select_options("id_group")
+            self.assertEqual(group_options, [group1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(group2.name, group_options)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {group1.name}")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-group", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+
+        with self.subTest("location target"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="small-location",
+                organization=org1,
+                location=location1,
+            )
+            location_options = self._select_options("id_location")
+            self.assertEqual(location_options, [location1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(location2.name, location_options)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {location1.name}")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-location", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+
+        with self.subTest("excluded devices"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="small-excluded", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            excluded_pk = checkbox.get_attribute("value")
+            checkbox.click()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            execute_button = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button")
+            excluded_field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.ID, value="id_excluded", wait_for="presence"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "4")
+            self.assertEqual(execute_button.text, "Execute on 4 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(excluded_field.get_attribute("value"), excluded_pk)
+            execute_button.click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-excluded", "failed", 4)
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            device_pks = [row.get_attribute("data-device-pk") for row in self._rows()]
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "4")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 4)
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
+
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_execute_large_batch(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        devices = self._create_devices(org1, 50)
+        device_names = [device.name for device in devices]
+        per_page = 20
+        second_page_end = per_page * 2
+        first_page = device_names[:per_page]
+        second_page = device_names[per_page:second_page_end]
+        self.login()
+        self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="large-reboot", organization=org1)
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+        self._wait_for_review_page()
+        summary = self._summary()
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+        self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "large-reboot")
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "50 devices")
+
+        with self.subTest("the device table is paginated"):
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "50")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), first_page)
+            self.assertIn("50 devices", paginator.text.lower())
+
+        with self.subTest("select all toggles the devices of the page"):
+            select_all = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="select-all-devices")
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            select_all.click()
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "30")
+            select_all.click()
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "50")
+
+        with self.subTest("exclusions survive pagination"):
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            excluded_pk = checkbox.get_attribute("value")
+            excluded_name = checkbox.get_attribute("aria-label").replace("Include ", "")
+            checkbox.click()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "49")
+            self.open(f"{self.confirm_url}?p=2")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            excluded_field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.ID, value="id_excluded", wait_for="presence"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), second_page)
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "49")
+            self.assertEqual(excluded_field.get_attribute("value"), excluded_pk)
+            self.open(self.confirm_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(checkbox.is_selected(), False)
+
+        with self.subTest("the excluded device is left out of the batch"):
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("large-reboot", "failed", 20)
+            label = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-label .readonly"
+            )
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            device_pks = [row.get_attribute("data-device-pk") for row in self._rows()]
+            command_names = self._command_device_names()
+            self.assertEqual(label.text, "large-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "-")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "49")
+            self.assertEqual(len(command_names), 20)
+            self.assertEqual(paginator.text, "49 commands")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(command_names) - {device.name for device in devices}, set()
+            )
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_name, command_names)
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
+
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_batch_command_organization_isolation_and_permissions(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 2)
+        self._create_devices(org2, 2)
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        group2 = self._create_device_group(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        location2 = self._create_location(name="location2", organization=org2)
+        batch1 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org1, label="managed-batch")
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="unmanaged-batch")
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org1])
+        self.login(username=operator.username, password="tester")
+
+        with self.subTest("the wizard only offers the managed organization"):
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            organization_options = self._select_options("id_organization")
+            self.assertEqual(organization_options, [org1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("targets of other organizations are not offered"):
+            self._select2("id_organization", org1.name)
+            group_options = self._select_options("id_group")
+            location_options = self._select_options("id_location")
+            self.assertEqual(group_options, [group1.name])
+            self.assertEqual(location_options, [location1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(group2.name, group_options)
+            self.assertNotIn(location2.name, location_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist hides other organizations"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            labels = [
+                row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-label").text
+                for row in self._rows()
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(labels, [batch1.label])
+            self.assertNotIn(batch2.label, labels)
+
+        with self.subTest("a batch of another organization cannot be opened"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk])
+            )
+            self._wait_for_url(reverse("admin:index"))
+
+        with self.subTest("only the devices of the managed organization are targeted"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="isolated-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices1])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("isolated-reboot", "failed", 2)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices1),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
+
+        with self.subTest("the view permission is not enough to execute"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org1], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=viewer.username, password="tester")
+            self.web_driver.get(f"{self.live_server_url}{self.execute_url}")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.TAG_NAME, value="body").text,
+                "403 Forbidden",
+            )
+            self.web_driver.get(f"{self.live_server_url}{self.confirm_url}")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.TAG_NAME, value="body").text,
+                "403 Forbidden",
+            )
+
+    def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices = self._create_devices(org1, 50)
+        searched_device, grouped_device, located_device, *_ = devices
+        self._create_devices(org2, 1)
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        grouped_device.group = group1
+        grouped_device.full_clean()
+        grouped_device.save()
+        self._create_object_location(content_object=located_device, location=location1)
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="org2-batch")
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org1, label="group-batch", group=group1)
+        self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org1, label="location-batch", location=location1
+        )
+        self.login()
+
+        with self.subTest("the wizard is reachable from the menu"):
+            self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
+            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command execute")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the whole flow runs on every device"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="menu-reboot",
+                organization=org1,
+                open_page=False,
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "50 devices")
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("menu-reboot", "failed", 20)
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            command_names = self._command_device_names()
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "50")
+            self.assertEqual(paginator.text, "50 commands")
+            self.assertEqual(len(command_names), 20)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(command_names) - {device.name for device in devices}, set()
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist is reachable from the menu"):
+            self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
+            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command admin")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._changelist_labels(),
+                ["menu-reboot", "location-batch", "group-batch", "org2-batch"],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist search matches the label"):
+            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self._search("no-such-batch")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator").text,
+                "0 Mass commands",
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist filters narrow the results"):
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("status", "idle")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(self._changelist_labels()),
+                {"org2-batch", "group-batch", "location-batch"},
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("type", "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("type", "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(self._changelist_labels()),
+                {"org2-batch", "group-batch", "location-batch"},
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist autocomplete filters narrow the results"):
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("organization", org2.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["org2-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("group_id", group1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["group-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("location_id", location1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["location-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the organization filter offers every organization"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            organization_options = self._autocomplete_options("organization")
+            self.assertIn(org1.name, organization_options)
+            self.assertIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("the batch is opened from the changelist"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.XPATH,
+                value="//table[@id='result_list']//a[normalize-space()='menu-reboot']",
+            ).click()
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot")
+            self._wait_for_url(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(len(self._rows()), 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the command table is searchable"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._search(searched_device.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [searched_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+            self._search("no-such-device")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .empty-results"
+                ).text,
+                "No commands found.",
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the command table is filterable"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+            self._filter_by("status", "success")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .empty-results"
+                ).text,
+                "No commands found.",
+            )
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("device group", group1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("location", location1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("organization", org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(len(self._command_device_names()), 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the operator only sees the managed organization"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org1])
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._changelist_labels(),
+                ["menu-reboot", "location-batch", "group-batch"],
+            )
+            organization_options = self._autocomplete_options("organization")
+            self.assertIn(org1.name, organization_options)
+            self.assertNotIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            filter_titles = [
+                title.text
+                for title in self.find_elements(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#ow-changelist-filter .filter-title h3"
+                )
+            ]
+            self.assertIn("By status", filter_titles)
+            self.assertNotIn("By organization", filter_titles)
+
+    def test_organization_scoped_custom_command_type(self):
+        org1 = self._create_org(
+            name="scoped org", slug="scoped-org", id=UUID(SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID)
+        )
+        org2 = self._create_org(
+            name="org2", slug="org2", id=UUID(DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID)
+        )
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 2)
+        self._create_devices(org2, 1)
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="org2-batch")
+        operator1 = self._create_operator(
+            organizations=[org1], username="operator1", email="operator1@test.com"
+        )
+        operator2 = self._create_operator(
+            organizations=[org2], username="operator2", email="operator2@test.com"
+        )
+        default_types = ["Custom commands", "Reboot", "Change password"]
+
+        with self.subTest("the scoped organization is offered the custom type"):
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator1.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._select_options("id_type"), default_types + ["UCI show"]
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the custom type renders the input of its schema"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="UCI show",
+                label="uci-show",
+                organization=org1,
+                command_input={"config": "network"},
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Command"], "config: network")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices1])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("uci-show", "failed", 2)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "config: network")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist type filter offers the custom type"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertIn("UCI show", self._filter_options("type"))
+            self._filter_by("type", "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["uci-show"])
+
+        with self.subTest("another organization only sees the default types"):
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator2.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            self.assertEqual(self._select_options("id_type"), default_types)
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["org2-batch"])
+            self.assertNotIn("UCI show", self._filter_options("type"))
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
index 1574e2364..9be852d4e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
@@ -1,12 +1,15 @@
 import os
 
+from django.contrib.messages import get_messages
 from mockssh import Server
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_users.tests.utils import TestOrganizationMixin
 
 from ...config.tests.utils import CreateConfigTemplateMixin
+from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
 from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin
 
 Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
@@ -151,6 +154,34 @@ def _create_command(self, device_conn=None, device_conn_opts={}, **kwargs):
         return Command.objects.create(**opts)
 
 
+class BatchCommandMixin(TestAdminMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin):
+    def _post_execute(self, **overrides):
+        data = {
+            "type": "custom",
+            "input": '{"command": "echo test"}',
+            "label": "test-label",
+            "notes": "",
+            "organization": "",
+            "group": "",
+            "location": "",
+        }
+        data.update(overrides)
+        return self.client.post(self.execute_url, data)
+
+    def _start_wizard(self, **overrides):
+        response = self._post_execute(**overrides)
+        assert response.status_code == 302, response.context["form"].errors
+        return self.client.session[BatchCommandAdmin.session_key]
+
+    def _post_confirm(self, token, excluded=""):
+        return self.client.post(
+            self.confirm_url, {"token": token, "excluded": excluded}
+        )
+
+    def _messages(self, response):
+        return [str(message) for message in get_messages(response.wsgi_request)]
+
+
 def _ping_command_callable(destination_address, interface_name=None):
     command = f"ping -c 4 {destination_address}"
     if interface_name:
@@ -160,3 +191,7 @@ def _ping_command_callable(destination_address, interface_name=None):
 
 def _restart_network_command_callable():
     return "/etc/init.d/networking restart"
+
+
+def _uci_show_command_callable(config):
+    return f"uci show {config}"

From fcac852702227c20cd1e92a16090a7709bd60610 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 23 Aug 2026 05:53:10 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 13/27] [docs] Add docs for mass command

---
 docs/user/intro.rst          |  6 +--
 docs/user/shell-commands.rst | 91 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-------
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst  | 91 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 3 files changed, 169 insertions(+), 19 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/intro.rst b/docs/user/intro.rst
index a9c9092d4..24b5095df 100644
--- a/docs/user/intro.rst
+++ b/docs/user/intro.rst
@@ -70,9 +70,9 @@ e.g.:
 
 - Sending configuration updates.
 - :doc:`Executing shell commands <shell-commands>`.
-- :doc:`Executing mass commands <shell-commands>`: Run a command on
-  multiple devices at once, see the :ref:`batch command API
-  <controller_batch_command_api>` for details.
+- :ref:`Executing mass commands <mass_commands>`: Run a command on
+  multiple devices at once, from the admin or with the :ref:`batch command
+  API <controller_batch_command_api>`.
 - Perform firmware upgrades via the additional :doc:`firmware upgrade
   module </firmware-upgrader/index>`.
 
diff --git a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
index c63374daf..4a29b5870 100644
--- a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
+++ b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
@@ -194,24 +194,83 @@ useful for rebooting all devices in a group, changing passwords across
 multiple devices, or running diagnostics on all devices in an
 organization.
 
-**Targeting options:**
+Sending a Mass Command
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
-- ``organization``: All devices in an organization.
-- ``devices``: Explicit list of device UUIDs.
-- ``group``: Device group UUID.
-- ``location``: Location UUID.
+Open *Network Operations* > *Mass command execute* from the menu. The
+first step asks for:
 
-If ``devices`` is provided, ``group`` and ``location`` are ignored.
-Otherwise, ``group`` and ``location`` can be used together to narrow the
-target set within the organization.
+- the **command type** and its inputs, which change with the type
+  selected;
+- a **label** to identify the mass command later, and optional **notes**;
+- the **targets**: organization, device group and location.
 
-If no targeting options are provided, the command targets all devices in
-the organization. Superusers can omit ``organization`` to target all
-devices across organizations.
+The targets decide which devices are matched. Using more than one narrows
+the selection: a group and a location together match only the devices
+which are in that group *and* at that location.
 
-For superusers, ``organization`` is set automatically when ``group`` or
-``location`` is provided.
+Superusers can leave every target empty to run the command on all the
+devices of the system. Other users must choose at least one target, and
+only see the command types enabled for their organizations (see
+:ref:`openwisp_controller_organization_enabled_commands`).
 
-Refer to the :ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>`
-documentation for the available endpoints, request parameters, and
-examples.
+Reviewing the Devices
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The second step shows a summary of the command and the list of the devices
+it matched.
+
+Devices can be left out by unchecking them: the counter and the *Execute
+on N devices* button follow the selection, which is kept while paging
+through the list. *Back* returns to the first step with the form still
+filled in.
+
+The mass command starts when the *Execute* button is clicked.
+
+Following the Results
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+After executing, the mass command page opens. It shows the status of the
+mass command, how many devices are affected, the devices which were
+skipped, and one row per device with its status and output.
+
+The rows are updated in real time, so the page does not need to be
+reloaded to follow the progress. The table can be searched by device name
+and filtered by status, device group and location (and by organization for
+superusers).
+
+.. note::
+
+    Commands are executed in the background, one device at a time, so a
+    mass command sent to many devices keeps updating for a while after the
+    page is opened.
+
+Finding Past Mass Commands
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+*Network Operations* > *Mass command admin* lists the mass commands which
+were sent, most recent first.
+
+The list can be searched by label, notes, organization, device, location
+and group name, and filtered by organization, status, type, group and
+location. Clicking a mass command opens the page described above.
+
+Skipped Devices
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A device is skipped when the command cannot be created for it, for example
+when the device has no access credentials, or when the command type is not
+enabled for its organization.
+
+Skipped devices are not executed, but they are shown: the **Skipped
+devices** field summarizes how many there are and why, and each one is
+listed in the results table with the *skipped* status and the reason as
+its output. They can be found with the status filter.
+
+Using the API
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The same operations are available over the REST API, which also accepts an
+explicit list of devices instead of the targets described above. Refer to
+the :ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>` documentation
+for the available endpoints, request parameters and examples.
diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index 781b3d59a..2ae54bbed 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -17,6 +17,8 @@ All endpoints:
   shown in JavaScript-style notation with inline comments for readability.
 - Push real-time updates after the connection is established.
 - Do not accept client messages: any data sent from the client is ignored.
+  The only exception is the mass command endpoint, which accepts the
+  single request documented below.
 
 Authentication and Authorization
 --------------------------------
@@ -161,3 +163,92 @@ After the connection is established, the server pushes a message every
 time the geometry of any mobile location in a subscribed organization is
 updated. The payload is identical to the one documented for the `2. Single
 Location Updates`_ endpoint.
+
+4. Mass Command Updates
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Connection URL:
+
+::
+
+    wss://<host>/ws/controller/batch-command/<batch_command_id>
+
+Scope
++++++
+
+Progress of a single mass command: its status and the result of every
+device it runs on. See :ref:`mass_commands`.
+
+Authorization
++++++++++++++
+
+A user is authorized if:
+
+- The user is a superuser, OR
+- The user is marked as staff AND has the ``connection.view_batchcommand``
+  or ``connection.change_batchcommand`` permission AND manages the
+  organization of the mass command.
+
+Real-time Updates
++++++++++++++++++
+
+The server pushes a message every time the mass command or one of its
+commands changes. The ``type`` field tells the two apart.
+
+When the mass command itself changes, for example when it moves from
+``idle`` to ``in-progress``:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "batch_status",
+        "id": "<uuid>",                  // Mass command identifier
+        "label": "<string>",             // Label given when it was sent
+        "status": "<string>",            // "idle", "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
+        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
+        "affected_devices": <integer>,   // Number of devices the command runs on
+        "skipped_count": <integer>,      // Number of devices which were skipped
+        "skipped_preview": [ /* ... */], // First and last skipped devices, with the reason
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
+    }
+
+When the command of one device changes:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "command_update",
+        "id": "<uuid>",                  // Command identifier
+        "device": "<uuid>",              // Device identifier
+        "device_name": "<string>",       // Device name
+        "status": "<string>",            // "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
+        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
+        "output": "<string>",            // Output collected so far
+        "modified": "<string>",          // Last modification, formatted for display
+        "index": <integer>,              // Position of the row, sent only for new commands
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices, sent with "index"
+    }
+
+Requesting the Current State
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+
+A client which connects while the mass command is already running can ask
+for the results it missed:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "request_current_state",
+        "page": 1                        // Page of results, 20 rows per page
+    }
+
+The server replies with one message holding that page:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "batch_state",
+        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Same fields as the "batch_status" message
+        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
+    }

From 3d28934d42c89532a3d97cb925f359eba9f69681 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 1 Sep 2026 18:13:12 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 14/27] [fix] UI and some minor issues

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py               | 11 ++++++-----
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css           |  5 ++++-
 .../connection/batch_command/execute_command.html     |  2 +-
 3 files changed, 11 insertions(+), 7 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index c321f92e1..430b7e829 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.db.models import Count, Q
-from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
+from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, HttpResponseNotAllowed, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ class Meta:
             "location",
         ]
         widgets = {
-            "label": forms.TextInput(attrs={"class": "vTextField"}),
+            "label": forms.TextInput(attrs={"class": "vTextField ow-text-field"}),
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
             "input": BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
             "group": OrganizationScopedSelect,
@@ -508,6 +508,8 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
         A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
         page, so that its device table can be paginated with plain GETs.
         """
+        if request.method not in ("GET", "POST"):
+            return HttpResponseNotAllowed(["GET", "POST"])
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
             form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request.POST, request=request)
@@ -524,9 +526,6 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
             "title": _("Execute mass command"),
             "opts": self.opts,
             "form": form,
-            # not combined with self.media: ModelAdmin.media loads
-            # jquery.init.js before select2, the opposite of what select2
-            # needs (see BatchCommandExecutionForm.Media)
             "media": form.media,
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
@@ -536,6 +535,8 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         """Second step: review the targeted devices and dispatch the command.
         Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone.
         """
+        if request.method not in ("GET", "POST"):
+            return HttpResponseNotAllowed(["GET", "POST"])
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
             return self._execute_batch_command(request)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index bf5307b85..288870bee 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -245,7 +245,7 @@
   text-align: center;
   width: 2rem;
 }
-.execute-form .submit-row {
+#main .execute-form .submit-row {
   display: flex;
   gap: 0.5rem;
   justify-content: flex-end;
@@ -306,3 +306,6 @@
 .execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input.errors .flex-container {
   display: none;
 }
+#main .form-row .ow-text-field {
+  width: 320px;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index bcd564b44..3dae5f60d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
 
 {% block content %}
 <div id="content-main">
-  <form method="post" novalidate>
+  <form method="post" novalidate class="execute-form">
     {% csrf_token %}
     <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
       <div class="stepper-step active" aria-current="step">

From b350446ce33e175d4a2d5f14abec28b29035dde9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 3 Sep 2026 07:35:49 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 15/27] [fix] Addressed review comments

- Replaced the assert authorizing websocket connections with an explicit
  conditional, which python -O cannot strip
- Rechecked permissions and organization scope on every websocket request
  and pushed update, closing the socket when access was revoked
- Accepted binary frames in BatchCommandConsumer.receive() and ignored them
- Revalidated batch ownership when creating child commands and before
  executing each one, skipping devices transferred to another organization
- Made the batch status write conditional on the status the calculation
  started from, so a stale result cannot overwrite a newer one
- Evaluated the confirm page device ids once, so the reviewed set and the
  executed set cannot diverge
- Rotated the wizard token when the target set changes, dropping the
  exclusions of the previous set
- Sent the active filters with the reconnect request, applied them before
  pagination and reconciled the table against the filtered snapshot
- Moved the batch command signal receivers to connection/handlers.py
- Moved skipped device counting, filtering and row building to the model
- Broadcast canonical status and ISO timestamps, rendering them in the
  browser like the single command page does
- Derived the device admin URLs from the swapped model
- Restored the wizard when the confirm page Back link is used
- Returned the union of the schemas available to superusers
- Made the password masking of the input summary case insensitive
- Restored the punctuation of the command validation messages
- Pluralized the device count of the confirm page
- Documented mass commands as asynchronous with a concurrency which
  depends on the celery workers
- Removed the leftovers of the dropped Django 4.2 support
---
 docs/user/shell-commands.rst                  |   8 +-
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst                   |  45 +-
 .../config/base/channels_consumer.py          |  19 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 160 +++----
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  87 +---
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py | 239 +++++++---
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  71 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py    |  75 ++++
 ...0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   7 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  90 +++-
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   |   2 +
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |   5 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |   8 +-
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                | 138 ++++--
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            | 361 ++++++++++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_api.py              | 113 +++--
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           | 276 +++++++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         | 423 +++++++++++++++---
 ...0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   7 +-
 tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/pytest.py   |   8 +
 tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py    |   8 +
 21 files changed, 1684 insertions(+), 466 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py

diff --git a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
index 4a29b5870..7e57b298c 100644
--- a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
+++ b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
@@ -241,9 +241,11 @@ superusers).
 
 .. note::
 
-    Commands are executed in the background, one device at a time, so a
-    mass command sent to many devices keeps updating for a while after the
-    page is opened.
+    Commands are executed asynchronously in the background: each device is
+    handled by an independent background task, so how many devices are
+    contacted at the same time depends on the concurrency of the Celery
+    workers. A mass command sent to many devices keeps updating for a
+    while after the page is opened.
 
 Finding Past Mass Commands
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index 2ae54bbed..400d015b6 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -204,14 +204,24 @@ When the mass command itself changes, for example when it moves from
         "type": "batch_status",
         "id": "<uuid>",                  // Mass command identifier
         "label": "<string>",             // Label given when it was sent
+        "notes": "<string>",             // Notes given when it was sent
+        "input": { /* ... */ },          // Command input, masked for "change_password"
+        "organization": "<uuid>",        // Organization, null when system wide
+        "group": "<uuid>",               // Device group target, null when not used
+        "location": "<uuid>",            // Location target, null when not used
         "status": "<string>",            // "idle", "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
-        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
+        "created": "<string>",           // ISO 8601 timestamp
+        "modified": "<string>",          // ISO 8601 timestamp
         "affected_devices": <integer>,   // Number of devices the command runs on
         "skipped_count": <integer>,      // Number of devices which were skipped
         "skipped_preview": [ /* ... */], // First and last skipped devices, with the reason
         "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
     }
 
+The status and the timestamps are sent as they are stored, without
+translation or formatting, so that each client can render them with its
+own language and time zone.
+
 When the command of one device changes:
 
 .. code-block:: javascript
@@ -221,11 +231,14 @@ When the command of one device changes:
         "id": "<uuid>",                  // Command identifier
         "device": "<uuid>",              // Device identifier
         "device_name": "<string>",       // Device name
+        "connection": "<uuid>",          // Device connection used, may be null
+        "batch_command": "<uuid>",       // Mass command this command belongs to
         "status": "<string>",            // "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
-        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
         "output": "<string>",            // Output collected so far
-        "modified": "<string>",          // Last modification, formatted for display
+        "created": "<string>",           // ISO 8601 timestamp
+        "modified": "<string>",          // ISO 8601 timestamp
         "index": <integer>,              // Position of the row, sent only for new commands
+        "affected_devices": <integer>,   // Commands created so far, sent with "index"
         "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices, sent with "index"
     }
 
@@ -239,16 +252,34 @@ for the results it missed:
 
     {
         "type": "request_current_state",
-        "page": 1                        // Page of results, 20 rows per page
+        "page": 1,                       // Page of results, 20 rows per page
+        "filters": {                     // Optional, the filters the page is showing
+            "q": "<string>",             // Search term matched against the device name
+            "status": "<string>",        // Command status, or "skipped"
+            "location_id": "<uuid>",     // Location of the device
+            "group_id": "<uuid>",        // Device group
+            "organization_id": "<uuid>"  // Organization of the device
+        }
     }
 
+Every filter is optional and an empty string means the filter is not
+active. The filters are applied before the results are paginated, so a
+client which is showing a filtered table receives the same rows it would
+get by reloading the page.
+
 The server replies with one message holding that page:
 
 .. code-block:: javascript
 
     {
         "type": "batch_state",
-        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Same fields as the "batch_status" message
-        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page
-        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
+        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Fields of the "batch_status" message,
+                                         // except "type" and "total_rows"
+        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page, in the shape
+                                         // of the "command_update" message
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Rows matching the filters, for the paginator
     }
+
+Rows of devices which were skipped are included in ``commands`` with
+``is_skipped`` set to ``true``, a ``status`` of ``skipped`` and the reason
+in ``output``.
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/config/base/channels_consumer.py b/openwisp_controller/config/base/channels_consumer.py
index 870ae7340..134949d2d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/config/base/channels_consumer.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/config/base/channels_consumer.py
@@ -10,7 +10,8 @@ class BaseDeviceConsumer(WebsocketConsumer):
     channel_layer_group = "config.device"
 
     def _is_user_authenticated(self):
-        return self.scope["user"].is_authenticated is True
+        user = self.scope.get("user")
+        return user is not None and user.is_authenticated
 
     def is_user_authorized(self):
         user = self.scope["user"]
@@ -32,16 +33,18 @@ def _user_has_permissions(self, add=True, change=True, delete=True):
         return self.scope["user"].has_perms(permissions)
 
     def connect(self):
+        if not self._is_user_authenticated() or not self.is_user_authorized():
+            self.close()
+            return
         try:
-            assert self._is_user_authenticated() and self.is_user_authorized()
             self.pk_ = self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
-        except (AssertionError, KeyError):
+        except KeyError:
             self.close()
-        else:
-            async_to_sync(self.channel_layer.group_add)(
-                f"{self.channel_layer_group}-{self.pk_}", self.channel_name
-            )
-            self.accept()
+            return
+        async_to_sync(self.channel_layer.group_add)(
+            f"{self.channel_layer_group}-{self.pk_}", self.channel_name
+        )
+        self.accept()
 
     def disconnect(self, close_code):
         try:
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 430b7e829..a39c4c9ac 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
+from .commands import ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import (
@@ -494,15 +495,29 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
         page load, before an organization has been picked.
         """
         self._check_add_permission(request)
-        if request.user.is_superuser:
-            return JsonResponse(Command.get_org_schema())
         schemas = {}
-        for organization_id in request.user.organizations_managed:
-            schemas.update(
-                Command.get_org_schema(organization_id=organization_id) or {}
-            )
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            for organization_schemas in ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA.values():
+                schemas.update(organization_schemas)
+        else:
+            for organization_id in request.user.organizations_managed:
+                schemas.update(
+                    Command.get_org_schema(organization_id=organization_id) or {}
+                )
         return JsonResponse(schemas)
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def _wizard_initial(wizard):
+        return {
+            "type": wizard.get("type"),
+            "input": wizard.get("input"),
+            "label": wizard.get("label"),
+            "notes": wizard.get("notes"),
+            "organization": wizard.get("organization_id"),
+            "group": wizard.get("group_id"),
+            "location": wizard.get("location_id"),
+        }
+
     def execute_command_view(self, request):
         """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
         A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
@@ -519,8 +534,14 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
                     f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
                 )
         else:
-            request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
-            form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
+            wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
+            if request.GET.get("back") and wizard:
+                form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(
+                    initial=self._wizard_initial(wizard), request=request
+                )
+            else:
+                request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
+                form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
             "title": _("Execute mass command"),
@@ -544,7 +565,10 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         if not wizard:
             return self._restart(request)
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
-        wizard["devices_digest"] = self._devices_digest(devices)
+        digest = self._devices_digest(devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
+        if wizard.get("devices_digest") not in (None, digest):
+            wizard["token"] = uuid4().hex
+        wizard["devices_digest"] = digest
         request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
         device_admin = self.get_device_admin(devices)
         # changelist_view() assembles the whole changelist context (cl,
@@ -562,8 +586,7 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         openwisp-monitoring replaces that registration to add its own.
         Resolved per request, when the registration is final.
         """
-        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
-        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
         # registered admin's
         device_admin_class = type(
@@ -579,8 +602,7 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
         is where other modules load the assets their columns need. Read from
         the class: django-import-export rewrites it on the instance.
         """
-        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
-        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
             "admin/change_list.html"
         )
@@ -622,11 +644,11 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
             )
         return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
 
-    def _devices_digest(self, devices):
+    def _devices_digest(self, device_ids):
         """Identifies the set of devices a confirm page was rendered with,
         so that only the reviewed set is executed.
         """
-        pks = sorted(str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
+        pks = sorted(str(pk) for pk in device_ids)
         return hashlib.sha256(",".join(pks).encode()).hexdigest()
 
     def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
@@ -666,7 +688,7 @@ def _describe_input(self, command_input):
         return ", ".join(
             f"{key}: {value}"
             for key, value in command_input.items()
-            if "password" not in key
+            if "password" not in key.lower()
         )
 
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
@@ -680,7 +702,8 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
             return self._restart(request)
         del request.session[self.session_key]
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
-        if self._devices_digest(devices) != wizard.get("devices_digest"):
+        device_ids = list(devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
+        if self._devices_digest(device_ids) != wizard.get("devices_digest"):
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
             self.message_user(
                 request,
@@ -694,7 +717,7 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         # page, so the selection can only ever remove from that set: the
         # browser never supplies a device to add.
         excluded = self._get_pk_list(request.POST, "excluded")
-        selection = devices.exclude(pk__in=excluded)
+        selection = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=device_ids).exclude(pk__in=excluded)
         kwargs = {
             "type": wizard["type"],
             "label": wizard["label"],
@@ -703,11 +726,27 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
             "organization_id": wizard.get("organization_id"),
             "group_id": wizard.get("group_id"),
             "location_id": wizard.get("location_id"),
-            "devices": list(selection.distinct()),
+            "devices": list(selection),
+            "system_wide": request.user.is_superuser
+            and not any(
+                (
+                    wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                    wizard.get("group_id"),
+                    wizard.get("location_id"),
+                )
+            ),
         }
         try:
             batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
-        except ObjectDoesNotExist:
+        except ObjectDoesNotExist as error:
+            logger.warning(
+                "Failed to execute mass command wizard"
+                " (organization_id=%s, group_id=%s, location_id=%s): %s",
+                wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                wizard.get("group_id"),
+                wizard.get("location_id"),
+                error,
+            )
             return self._restart(request)
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
@@ -804,14 +843,14 @@ def affected_devices(self, obj):
     affected_devices.admin_order_field = "_affected_devices"
 
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
-        if not obj.skipped_devices:
+        if not obj.skipped_count:
             return "-"
         rows = obj.get_skipped_preview()
-        lines = [str(len(obj.skipped_devices))]
+        lines = [str(obj.skipped_count)]
         lines += [
             format_html("{}: {}", row["device_name"], row["output"]) for row in rows
         ]
-        if len(rows) < len(obj.skipped_devices):
+        if len(rows) < obj.skipped_count:
             lines.insert(-1, "\u2026")
         return format_html(
             '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
@@ -839,7 +878,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             if value:
                 q[param_name] = value
             qs = q.urlencode()
-            query_string = f"?{qs}" if qs else ""
+            query_string = f"?{qs}"
             return {
                 "display": display,
                 "selected": current_value == value,
@@ -857,8 +896,12 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
         filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
         batch_devices = Device.objects.filter(
-            Q(command__batch_command=obj) | Q(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+            Q(command__batch_command=obj) | Q(pk__in=obj.skipped_device_ids)
         )
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            batch_devices = batch_devices.filter(
+                organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
 
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
@@ -928,7 +971,9 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
-    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_items, page_param, per_page=None):
+    def _paginate_commands(
+        self, batch, commands_qs, skipped_items, page_param, per_page=None
+    ):
         """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
         Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
         so the newest is always last and the change page can append results
@@ -951,10 +996,7 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_items, page_param, per_page=No
         ]
         skipped_start = max(0, start - commands_count)
         skipped_end = max(0, end - commands_count)
-        rows += [
-            BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped)
-            for pk, skipped in skipped_items[skipped_start:skipped_end]
-        ]
+        rows += batch.get_skipped_rows(skipped_start, skipped_end, items=skipped_items)
         return page_obj, paginator, rows
 
     def _get_active_filters(self, request):
@@ -966,59 +1008,18 @@ def _get_active_filters(self, request):
             "organization_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("organization_id", "")),
         }
 
-    def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
-        status = filters["status"]
-        if status == "skipped":
-            return qs.none()
-        if filters["q"]:
-            qs = qs.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
-        if status:
-            qs = qs.filter(status=status)
-        if filters["location_id"]:
-            qs = qs.filter(device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"])
-        if filters["group_id"]:
-            qs = qs.filter(device__group_id=filters["group_id"])
-        if filters["organization_id"]:
-            qs = qs.filter(device__organization_id=filters["organization_id"])
-        return qs
-
-    def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
-        related = (
-            filters["organization_id"],
-            filters["group_id"],
-            filters["location_id"],
-        )
-        matching = None
-        if any(related):
-            organization_id, group_id, location_id = related
-            devices = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-            if organization_id:
-                devices = devices.filter(organization_id=organization_id)
-            if group_id:
-                devices = devices.filter(group_id=group_id)
-            if location_id:
-                devices = devices.filter(devicelocation__location_id=location_id)
-            matching = {str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True)}
-        query = filters["q"].lower() if filters["q"] else ""
-        return [
-            (pk, skipped)
-            for pk, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items()
-            if (matching is None or pk in matching)
-            and (not query or query in skipped["name"].lower())
-        ]
-
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         extra_context = extra_context or {}
         obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
         if obj:
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
-            commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
+            commands_qs = obj.filter_commands(commands_qs, filters)
             skipped_items = []
-            if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
-                skipped_items = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
+            if obj.skipped_count and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
+                skipped_items = obj.filter_skipped_items(filters)
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
-                commands_qs, skipped_items, request.GET.get("page", 1)
+                obj, commands_qs, skipped_items, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
@@ -1037,6 +1038,15 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                     "has_active_filters": any(
                         value for key, value in filters.items() if key != "q"
                     ),
+                    "device_opts": Device._meta,
+                    "status_labels": {
+                        status: str(label)
+                        for status, label in (
+                            *BatchCommand.STATUS_CHOICES,
+                            *Command.STATUS_CHOICES,
+                            ("skipped", _("skipped")),
+                        )
+                    },
                 }
             )
         return super().change_view(request, object_id, extra_context=extra_context)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 7c2485527..0d4c1bb78 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -1,12 +1,6 @@
-import logging
-
-from asgiref.sync import async_to_sync
-from channels import layers
 from django.apps import AppConfig
 from django.db import transaction
 from django.db.models.signals import post_save
-from django.utils.formats import date_format
-from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
 from openwisp_notifications.signals import notify
 from openwisp_notifications.types import register_notification_type
@@ -17,8 +11,6 @@
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
-logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
-
 
 class ConnectionConfig(AppConfig):
     name = "openwisp_controller.connection"
@@ -40,10 +32,10 @@ def ready(self):
         self.notification_cache_update()
         self.register_menu_groups()
 
+        from . import handlers  # noqa
+
         Config = load_model("config", "Config")
         Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
-        Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
-        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
         config_modified.connect(
             self.config_modified_receiver, dispatch_uid="connection.update_config"
@@ -63,85 +55,10 @@ def ready(self):
             dispatch_uid="is_working_changed_receiver",
         )
 
-        post_save.connect(
-            self.command_save_receiver,
-            sender=Command,
-            dispatch_uid="command_save_handler",
-        )
-        post_save.connect(
-            self.batch_command_save_receiver,
-            sender=BatchCommand,
-            dispatch_uid="batch_command_save_handler",
-        )
-
     @classmethod
     def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
         transaction.on_commit(lambda: cls._launch_update_config(kwargs["device"]))
 
-    @classmethod
-    def _send_batch_update(cls, group, data):
-        def send():
-            try:
-                async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
-                    group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data}
-                )
-            except Exception:
-                logger.exception("Failed to send update to %s", group)
-
-        transaction.on_commit(send)
-
-    @classmethod
-    def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
-
-        if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
-            return
-        serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
-        if not created:
-            async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
-                f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
-                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
-            )
-        if instance.batch_command_id:
-            batch_data = dict(serialized_data)
-            batch_data.pop("input", None)
-            batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
-            batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
-            batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
-            batch_data["modified"] = date_format(
-                localtime(instance.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
-            )
-            batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
-            if created:
-                batch = instance.batch_command
-                index = getattr(instance, "_batch_index", None)
-                if index is None:
-                    index = batch.affected_devices - 1
-                affected_devices = index + 1
-                batch_data["index"] = index
-                batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-                batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
-                    batch.skipped_devices or {}
-                )
-            cls._send_batch_update(
-                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}", batch_data
-            )
-
-    @classmethod
-    def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
-
-        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
-        batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
-        batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
-        affected_devices = instance.affected_devices
-        skipped_count = len(batch_data.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {})
-        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-        batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
-        batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
-        batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
-        cls._send_batch_update(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
-
     @classmethod
     def _launch_update_config(cls, device):
         """
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index d9ac28828..73d49b3e1 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
 import logging
+from itertools import islice
 
 import jsonschema
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
 from django.core.serializers.json import DjangoJSONEncoder
 from django.db import DatabaseError, models, transaction
 from django.db.models import JSONField
+from django.db.models.signals import post_save
 from django.utils import timezone
 from django.utils.functional import cached_property
 from django.utils.module_loading import import_string
@@ -484,7 +486,7 @@ def get_org_allowed_commands(self, organization_id=None):
         Returns a list of allowed commands for the given organization
         """
         allowed_commands = ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS.get(
-            str(organization_id), ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS.get("__all__")
+            str(organization_id), ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS.get("__all__", ())
         )
         commands_map = dict(COMMAND_CHOICES)
         return [
@@ -508,7 +510,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     def clean(self):
         if self.device.is_fully_deactivated():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated.")})
         self._verify_command_type_allowed()
         self._verify_connection()
         try:
@@ -519,7 +521,7 @@ def clean(self):
     def _verify_connection(self):
         """Raises validation error if device has no connection and credentials."""
         if self.device and not self.device.deviceconnection_set.exists():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned.")})
 
     def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
         """Raises validation error if command type is not allowed."""
@@ -534,11 +536,8 @@ def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
             raise ValidationError(
                 {
                     "input": _(
-                        (
-                            '"{command}" command is not available '
-                            "for this organization"
-                        ).format(command=self.type)
-                    )
+                        '"{command}" command is not available for this organization'
+                    ).format(command=self.type)
                 }
             )
 
@@ -613,6 +612,27 @@ def execute(self):
         if self.device.is_fully_deactivated():
             self.status = "failed"
             self._add_output("Device is deactivated.")
+        elif (
+            self.batch_command_id
+            and self.batch_command.organization_id
+            and self.batch_command.organization_id != self.device.organization_id
+        ):
+            self.status = "failed"
+            self._add_output(
+                gettext(
+                    "The device no longer belongs to the organization of this"
+                    " mass command."
+                )
+            )
+            logger.warning(
+                "Not executing command %s of batch %s: device %s belongs to"
+                " organization %s instead of %s",
+                self.pk,
+                self.batch_command_id,
+                self.device_id,
+                self.device.organization_id,
+                self.batch_command.organization_id,
+            )
         else:
             exit_code = self._exec_command()
             # if output is None, the commands couldn't execute
@@ -761,7 +781,7 @@ class AbstractBatchCommand(ValidateOrgMixin, TimeStampedEditableModel):
     )
     type = models.CharField(
         max_length=16,
-        choices=(COMMAND_CHOICES if django.VERSION < (5, 0) else get_command_choices),
+        choices=get_command_choices,
     )
     input = JSONField(blank=True, null=True, encoder=DjangoJSONEncoder)
     group = models.ForeignKey(
@@ -815,7 +835,15 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     @property
     def total_devices(self):
-        return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
+        return self.affected_devices + self.skipped_count
+
+    @property
+    def skipped_count(self):
+        return len(self.skipped_devices or {})
+
+    @property
+    def skipped_device_ids(self):
+        return (self.skipped_devices or {}).keys()
 
     @staticmethod
     def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
@@ -829,14 +857,83 @@ def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
             "is_skipped": True,
         }
 
-    def get_skipped_rows(self, start=0, end=None):
-        items = list((self.skipped_devices or {}).items())[start:end]
-        return [self.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped) for pk, skipped in items]
+    @staticmethod
+    def normalize_filters(filters):
+        if not isinstance(filters, dict):
+            filters = {}
+        return {
+            key: str(filters.get(key) or "")
+            for key in ("q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id")
+        }
+
+    def filter_skipped_items(self, filters):
+        related = (
+            filters["organization_id"],
+            filters["group_id"],
+            filters["location_id"],
+        )
+        device_ids = None
+        if any(related):
+            organization_id, group_id, location_id = related
+            Device = load_model("config", "Device")
+            devices = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=self.skipped_device_ids)
+            if organization_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(organization_id=organization_id)
+            if group_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(group_id=group_id)
+            if location_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(devicelocation__location_id=location_id)
+            device_ids = {str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True)}
+        return self.get_skipped_items(query=filters["q"], device_ids=device_ids)
+
+    def filter_commands(self, queryset, filters):
+        status = filters["status"]
+        if status == "skipped":
+            return queryset.none()
+        if filters["q"]:
+            queryset = queryset.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
+        if status:
+            queryset = queryset.filter(status=status)
+        if filters["location_id"]:
+            queryset = queryset.filter(
+                device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"]
+            )
+        if filters["group_id"]:
+            queryset = queryset.filter(device__group_id=filters["group_id"])
+        if filters["organization_id"]:
+            queryset = queryset.filter(
+                device__organization_id=filters["organization_id"]
+            )
+        return queryset
+
+    def get_skipped_items(self, query="", device_ids=None):
+        skipped_devices = self.skipped_devices or {}
+        if not query and device_ids is None:
+            return skipped_devices.items()
+        query = query.lower()
+        return [
+            (pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in skipped_devices.items()
+            if (device_ids is None or pk in device_ids)
+            and (not query or query in skipped["name"].lower())
+        ]
+
+    def get_skipped_rows(self, start=0, end=None, items=None):
+        if items is None:
+            items = (self.skipped_devices or {}).items()
+        return [
+            self.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in islice(items, start, end)
+        ]
 
     def get_skipped_preview(self, limit=10):
-        if len(self.skipped_devices or {}) <= limit:
+        skipped = self.skipped_devices or {}
+        if len(skipped) <= limit:
             return self.get_skipped_rows()
-        return self.get_skipped_rows(end=2) + self.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)
+        last_pk = next(reversed(skipped))
+        return self.get_skipped_rows(end=2) + [
+            self.build_skipped_row(last_pk, skipped[last_pk])
+        ]
 
     @property
     def affected_devices(self):
@@ -858,10 +955,12 @@ def _validate_device_org(device, organization_id):
             )
 
     @classmethod
-    def _validate_devices_org(cls, devices, organization_id):
+    def _validate_devices_org(cls, devices, organization_id, system_wide=False):
         if not devices:
             return
         if not organization_id:
+            if system_wide:
+                return
             organization_id = devices[0].organization_id
         for device in devices:
             cls._validate_device_org(device, organization_id)
@@ -894,7 +993,8 @@ def clean(self):
             raise ValidationError(
                 {
                     "type": _(
-                        '"{command}" command is not available for this organization'
+                        '"{command}" command is not available for the target'
+                        " organization(s)"
                     ).format(command=self.type)
                 }
             )
@@ -913,7 +1013,10 @@ def resolve_devices(self):
         consume it with iterator().
         """
         if self.pk and self.devices.exists():
-            return self.devices.select_related("config")
+            qs = self.devices.select_related("config")
+            if self.organization_id:
+                qs = qs.filter(organization_id=self.organization_id)
+            return qs
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         qs = Device.objects.select_related("config")
         if self.organization_id:
@@ -932,6 +1035,7 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
         devices match the criteria.
         """
         devices_list = kwargs.pop("devices", None)
+        system_wide = kwargs.pop("system_wide", False)
         batch = cls(**kwargs)
         with transaction.atomic():
             batch.full_clean()
@@ -940,7 +1044,9 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
                 devices_list = list(batch.resolve_devices())
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
             else:
-                cls._validate_devices_org(devices_list, batch.organization_id)
+                cls._validate_devices_org(
+                    devices_list, batch.organization_id, system_wide=system_wide
+                )
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
                 batch._validate_org_relations()
             if not devices_list:
@@ -978,6 +1084,25 @@ def _clean_sensitive_info(self):
         if self.type == "change_password":
             self.input = {"password": "********"}
 
+    def _skip_transferred_devices(self):
+        if not self.pk or not self.organization_id:
+            return
+        transferred = self.devices.exclude(organization_id=self.organization_id)
+        for device in transferred.iterator():
+            self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
+                "name": device.name,
+                "error": gettext(
+                    "The device no longer belongs to the organization of this"
+                    " mass command"
+                ),
+            }
+            logger.warning(
+                "Skipping device %s for batch %s: transferred to another"
+                " organization",
+                device.pk,
+                self.pk,
+            )
+
     def create_commands(self):
         """
         Creates individual Command instances for each device targeted by
@@ -997,6 +1122,7 @@ def create_commands(self):
         self.skipped_devices = {}
         device_pks = []
         created_count = 0
+        self._skip_transferred_devices()
         for device in self.resolve_devices().iterator():
             device_pks.append(device.pk)
             command = Command(
@@ -1011,11 +1137,10 @@ def create_commands(self):
                 command.save()
                 created_count += 1
             except ValidationError as e:
+                messages = e.messages if hasattr(e, "messages") else [str(e)]
                 self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
                     "name": device.name,
-                    "error": (
-                        ", ".join(e.messages) if hasattr(e, "messages") else str(e)
-                    ),
+                    "error": ", ".join(message.rstrip(".") for message in messages),
                 }
                 logger.warning(
                     "Skipping device %s for batch %s: %s",
@@ -1032,18 +1157,8 @@ def create_commands(self):
         if self.type == "change_password":
             self.save(update_fields=["input"])
 
-    def calculate_and_update_status(self):
-        """
-        Calculate batch status based on individual command statuses and update if
-        changed.
-        - No commands exist: status set to "idle".
-        - Commands still running: status set to "in-progress".
-        - Some commands failed: status set to "failed".
-        - All commands completed successfully: status set to "success".
-        - Status unchanged: no database write performed.
-        """
-        batch = self.__class__.objects.get(pk=self.pk)
-        stats = batch.batch_commands.aggregate(
+    def _compute_status(self):
+        stats = self.batch_commands.aggregate(
             total_operations=models.Count("id"),
             in_progress=models.Count(
                 models.Case(
@@ -1071,21 +1186,43 @@ def calculate_and_update_status(self):
             ),
         )
         if stats["total_operations"] == 0:
-            if batch.skipped_devices:
-                new_status = "failed"
-            else:
-                new_status = "idle"
-        elif stats["in_progress"] > 0:
-            new_status = "in-progress"
-        elif stats["failed"] > 0:
-            new_status = "failed"
-        elif (
-            stats["successful"] > 0 and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]
+            if self.skipped_devices:
+                return "failed"
+            return "idle"
+        if stats["in_progress"] > 0:
+            return "in-progress"
+        if stats["failed"] > 0:
+            return "failed"
+        if stats["successful"] > 0 and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]:
+            if self.skipped_devices:
+                return "failed"
+            return "success"
+        return self.status
+
+    def calculate_and_update_status(self):
+        """
+        Calculate batch status based on individual command statuses and update if
+        changed.
+        - No commands exist: status set to "idle".
+        - Commands still running: status set to "in-progress".
+        - Some commands failed: status set to "failed".
+        - All commands completed successfully: status set to "success".
+        - Status unchanged: no database write performed.
+        """
+        batch = self.__class__.objects.get(pk=self.pk)
+        new_status = batch._compute_status()
+        if batch.status == new_status:
+            return
+        modified = timezone.now()
+        if not self.__class__.objects.filter(pk=self.pk, status=batch.status).update(
+            status=new_status, modified=modified
         ):
-            if batch.skipped_devices:
-                new_status = "failed"
-            else:
-                new_status = "success"
-        if batch.status != new_status:
-            batch.status = new_status
-            batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
+            return
+        batch.status = new_status
+        batch.modified = modified
+        post_save.send(
+            sender=self.__class__,
+            instance=batch,
+            created=False,
+            update_fields=frozenset({"status"}),
+        )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 8fc6b34d4..7b5017be2 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -2,8 +2,7 @@
 import logging
 from copy import deepcopy
 
-from django.utils.formats import date_format
-from django.utils.timezone import localtime
+from django.contrib.auth import get_user_model
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
@@ -28,7 +27,21 @@ class BatchCommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
     per_page = 20
     current_state_message = "request_current_state"
 
+    def _has_access(self):
+        """The connected user is reloaded because permissions and organization
+        memberships cached on the instance stored in the scope do not reflect
+        the changes made after the socket was accepted.
+        """
+        user = get_user_model().objects.filter(pk=self.scope["user"].pk).first()
+        if user is None or not user.is_active:
+            return False
+        self.scope["user"] = user
+        return self.is_user_authorized()
+
     def send_update(self, event):
+        if not self._has_access():
+            self.close()
+            return
         self.send(json.dumps(event["data"]))
 
     def is_user_authorized(self):
@@ -48,7 +61,10 @@ def is_user_authorized(self):
         )
         return bool(organization_id) and user.is_manager(str(organization_id))
 
-    def receive(self, text_data):
+    def receive(self, text_data=None, bytes_data=None):
+        if text_data is None:
+            logger.warning("Received a binary websocket message, ignoring it")
+            return
         try:
             content = json.loads(text_data)
         except ValueError:
@@ -58,52 +74,61 @@ def receive(self, text_data):
                 "Received a websocket message which is not a valid JSON object"
             )
             return
+        if not self._has_access():
+            self.close()
+            return
         message_type = content.get("type")
         if message_type == self.current_state_message:
-            self._handle_current_state_request(content.get("page"))
+            self._handle_current_state_request(
+                content.get("page"), content.get("filters")
+            )
         else:
             logger.warning(f"Unknown websocket message type received: {message_type}")
 
-    def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
-        """Handle request for current state of the operation"""
+    def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
+        """Handle request for current state of the operation.
 
+        The page is built from the same filters the browser is showing, so a
+        reconnect on a filtered page reconciles against a comparable snapshot
+        instead of the whole batch.
+        """
         batch = BatchCommand.objects.filter(
             pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
         ).first()
         if not batch:
             # deleted after the connection was accepted
             return
+        filters = BatchCommand.normalize_filters(filters)
         batch_status = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
-        batch_status["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
-        commands_count = batch.batch_commands.count()
-        batch_status["affected_devices"] = commands_count
-        batch_status["skipped_count"] = len(
-            batch_status.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {}
-        )
+        batch_status["affected_devices"] = batch.affected_devices
+        batch_status.pop("skipped_devices", None)
+        batch_status["skipped_count"] = batch.skipped_count
         batch_status["skipped_preview"] = batch.get_skipped_preview()
+        commands_qs = batch.filter_commands(
+            batch.batch_commands.select_related("device"), filters
+        )
+        commands_count = commands_qs.count()
+        skipped_items = []
+        if batch.skipped_count and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
+            skipped_items = batch.filter_skipped_items(filters)
         try:
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
             page = 1
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
-        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
-        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[
-            start:commands_end
-        ]
         commands = []
-        for command in page_commands:
+        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
+        for command in commands_qs[start:commands_end]:
             row = CommandSerializer(command).data
             row.pop("input", None)
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
-            row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
             row["output"] = command.output_preview
-            row["modified"] = date_format(
-                localtime(command.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
-            )
             commands.append(row)
         commands += batch.get_skipped_rows(
-            max(0, start - commands_count), max(0, end - commands_count)
+            max(0, start - commands_count),
+            max(0, end - commands_count),
+            items=skipped_items,
         )
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
@@ -111,7 +136,7 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
                     "type": "batch_state",
                     "batch_status": batch_status,
                     "commands": commands,
-                    "total_rows": commands_count + batch_status["skipped_count"],
+                    "total_rows": commands_count + len(skipped_items),
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e05491e73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+import logging
+
+from asgiref.sync import async_to_sync
+from channels import layers
+from django.db import transaction
+from django.db.models.signals import post_save
+from django.dispatch import receiver
+from swapper import load_model
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+
+
+def send_update(group, event):
+    def send():
+        try:
+            async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(group, event)
+        except Exception:
+            logger.exception("Failed to send update to %s", group)
+
+    transaction.on_commit(send)
+
+
+def send_batch_update(group, data):
+    send_update(group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data})
+
+
+@receiver(post_save, sender=Command, dispatch_uid="command_save_handler")
+def command_save_handler(sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
+    from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
+
+    if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
+        return
+    serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+    if not created:
+        send_update(
+            f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
+            {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
+        )
+    if instance.batch_command_id:
+        batch_data = dict(serialized_data)
+        batch_data.pop("input", None)
+        batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
+        batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
+        batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
+        if created:
+            batch = instance.batch_command
+            index = getattr(instance, "_batch_index", None)
+            if index is None:
+                index = batch.affected_devices - 1
+            affected_devices = index + 1
+            batch_data["index"] = index
+            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + batch.skipped_count
+        send_batch_update(
+            f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}", batch_data
+        )
+
+
+@receiver(post_save, sender=BatchCommand, dispatch_uid="batch_command_save_handler")
+def batch_command_save_handler(sender, instance, **kwargs):
+    from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
+
+    batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
+    batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
+    affected_devices = instance.affected_devices
+    batch_data.pop("skipped_devices", None)
+    skipped_count = instance.skipped_count
+    batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+    batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
+    batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
+    batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
+    send_batch_update(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index e63a48708..4f04b4e2c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 
 import uuid
 
-import django
 import django.core.serializers.json
 import django.db.migrations.operations.special
 import django.db.models.deletion
@@ -72,11 +71,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                 (
                     "type",
                     models.CharField(
-                        choices=(
-                            openwisp_controller.connection.commands.COMMAND_CHOICES
-                            if django.VERSION < (5, 0)
-                            else openwisp_controller.connection.commands.get_command_choices  # noqa: E501
-                        ),
+                        choices=openwisp_controller.connection.commands.get_command_choices,  # noqa: E501
                         max_length=16,
                     ),
                 ),
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index e63da7d31..562e5783f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 "use strict";
 
 const DEFAULT_PER_PAGE = 20;
+const FILTERED_REFRESH_DELAY = 1000;
 const DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER = "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000";
+let filteredRefreshTimeout = null;
 
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
   const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(getWebSocketUrl(), null, {
@@ -15,7 +17,7 @@ django.jQuery(function ($) {
   batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("message", function (e) {
     const data = JSON.parse(e.data);
     if (data.type === "command_update") {
-      handleCommandMessage($, data);
+      handleCommandMessage($, data, batchCommandWebSocket);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_status") {
       handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, batchCommandWebSocket);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_state") {
@@ -23,6 +25,8 @@ django.jQuery(function ($) {
     }
   });
   batchCommandWebSocket.open();
+  // exposed so that a reconnect can be triggered from the browser tests
+  window.batchCommandWebSocket = batchCommandWebSocket;
 });
 
 function getWebSocketUrl() {
@@ -47,6 +51,7 @@ function requestCurrentState($, websocket) {
         type: "request_current_state",
         batch_id: batchCommandId,
         page: getCurrentPage($),
+        filters: getActiveFilters(),
       }),
     );
   } catch (error) {
@@ -54,18 +59,48 @@ function requestCurrentState($, websocket) {
   }
 }
 
-function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
+function handleCommandMessage($, data, websocket) {
   updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
   renderCommand($, data);
+  if (hasActiveFilters()) {
+    scheduleFilteredRefresh($, websocket);
+  }
+}
+
+function scheduleFilteredRefresh($, websocket) {
+  if (!websocket || filteredRefreshTimeout) {
+    return;
+  }
+  filteredRefreshTimeout = setTimeout(function () {
+    filteredRefreshTimeout = null;
+    requestCurrentState($, websocket);
+  }, FILTERED_REFRESH_DELAY);
+}
+
+function getStatusLabel(status) {
+  const element = document.getElementById("batch-status-labels");
+  const labels = element ? JSON.parse(element.textContent) : {};
+  return labels[status] || status;
+}
+
+function getFormattedDateTimeString(dateTimeString) {
+  if (!dateTimeString) {
+    return "-";
+  }
+  const formattedString = new Date(dateTimeString).strftime("%B %d, %Y %I:%M %p"),
+    stringArray = formattedString.split(" ");
+  stringArray[0] = stringArray[0].substring(0, 4) + ".";
+  stringArray[4] = stringArray[4] == "AM" ? "a.m." : "p.m.";
+  return stringArray.join(" ");
 }
 
 function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, websocket) {
   const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
-  if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
+  if ($status.length && data.status) {
     $status
       .removeClass()
       .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-      .text(data.status_display);
+      .text(getStatusLabel(data.status));
   }
   updateSkippedDevices($, data);
   updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
@@ -113,18 +148,32 @@ function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
     $,
     data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
     data.total_rows,
+    true,
   );
   if (!data.commands || !Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
     return;
   }
-  data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
+  // the snapshot is built with the filters this page is showing, so it is the
+  // authoritative content of the table: rows missing from it no longer belong
+  reconcileRows($, data.commands);
+}
+
+function reconcileRows($, commands) {
+  const devices = {};
+  commands.forEach(function (command) {
+    devices[String(command.device)] = true;
     const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
     if ($row.length) {
       updateRow($, $row, command);
-    } else if (!hasActiveFilters()) {
+    } else {
       insertRow($, command);
     }
   });
+  $("#result_list tbody tr[data-device-pk]").each(function () {
+    if (!devices[String($(this).data("device-pk"))]) {
+      $(this).remove();
+    }
+  });
 }
 
 function renderCommand($, data) {
@@ -167,9 +216,9 @@ function updateRow($, $row, data) {
     .find(".command-status")
     .removeClass()
     .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-    .text(data.status_display);
+    .text(getStatusLabel(data.status));
   $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
-  $row.find("td:last-child").text(data.modified || "-");
+  $row.find("td:last-child").text(getFormattedDateTimeString(data.modified));
 }
 
 function insertRow($, data) {
@@ -203,7 +252,7 @@ function insertRow($, data) {
     $("<td>").append(
       $("<span>")
         .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-        .text(data.status_display),
+        .text(getStatusLabel(data.status)),
     ),
   );
   $row.append(
@@ -211,19 +260,19 @@ function insertRow($, data) {
       .addClass("command-output")
       .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
   );
-  $row.append($("<td>").text(data.modified || "-"));
+  $row.append($("<td>").text(getFormattedDateTimeString(data.modified)));
   $tableBody.append($row);
 }
 
-function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
+function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows, filtered) {
   if (affectedDevices != null) {
     const $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
     if ($affected.length) {
       $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
     }
   }
-  // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
-  if (totalRows == null || hasActiveFilters()) {
+  // pushed totals are not filtered, only the reconnect snapshot is
+  if (totalRows == null || (!filtered && hasActiveFilters())) {
     return;
   }
   const $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
@@ -290,13 +339,22 @@ function getActiveStatusFilter($) {
   return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
 }
 
-function hasActiveFilters() {
+function getActiveFilters() {
   const params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
-  return ["q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id"].some(
+  const filters = {};
+  ["q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id"].forEach(
     function (name) {
-      return !!params.get(name);
+      filters[name] = params.get(name) || "";
     },
   );
+  return filters;
+}
+
+function hasActiveFilters() {
+  const filters = getActiveFilters();
+  return Object.keys(filters).some(function (name) {
+    return !!filters[name];
+  });
 }
 
 function getCurrentPage($) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index b52577c2c..bc5863766 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -136,6 +136,7 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
   const $table = $("#result_list");
   const $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
   const $count = $("#selected-count");
+  const $countLabel = $("#selected-count-label");
   const $button = $("#execute-button");
   const totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
   const excluded = getStoredExclusions($, storageKey);
@@ -146,6 +147,7 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
     $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
     setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks);
     $count.text(selected);
+    $countLabel.text(ngettext("device", "devices", selected));
     $button.text(
       interpolate(ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected), [
         selected,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index a07f2fba4..4ff34b454 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 {% endif %}
     const batchCommandId = '{{ original.pk }}';
 </script>
+{{ status_labels|json_script:"batch-status-labels" }}
 {% endblock %}
 
 {% block content %}
@@ -101,7 +102,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 
 <div class="results-container">
   <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
-    data-device-url="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
+    data-device-url="{% url device_opts|admin_urlname:'change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
     data-active-status="{{ request.GET.status|default:'' }}"
     data-per-page="{{ paginator.per_page }}"
     data-current-page="{{ page_obj.number }}">
@@ -122,7 +123,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
           {% if command.is_skipped %}
           <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
           {% else %}
-          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device %}#command_set-2-group"
+          <a href="{% url device_opts|admin_urlname:'change' command.device %}#command_set-2-group"
             class="device-link" aria-label="{% trans 'View recent commands' %} {{ command.device_name }}">
             {{ command.device_name }}
           </a>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 7401ec413..898c59ad4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -84,7 +84,11 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
       <div class="readonly">
-        <strong id="selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
+        {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong> <span id="selected-count-label">device</span>
+        {% plural %}
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong> <span id="selected-count-label">devices</span>
+        {% endblocktrans %}
       </div>
     </div>
   </div>
@@ -112,7 +116,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
   <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
   <input type="hidden" name="token" value="{{ wizard.token }}">
   <div class="submit-row">
-    <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
+    <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}?back=1">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
     <button type="submit" class="default" id="execute-button">
       {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
       Execute on {{ counter }} device
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index 12bba889f..f0cdac3df 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.utils import CreateCommandMixin
 
-from .. import apps
+from .. import handlers
 from ..channels.consumers import BatchCommandConsumer
 from .test_models import BaseTestModels
 
@@ -133,27 +133,6 @@ async def _connect(self, pk, user=None):
         connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
         return communicator, connected
 
-    async def _connect_through_route(self, admin_client, batch):
-        session_id = admin_client.cookies["sessionid"].value
-        communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
-            self.application,
-            path=f"{self.path}/{batch.pk}",
-            headers=[(b"cookie", f"sessionid={session_id}".encode("ascii"))],
-        )
-        connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
-        return communicator, connected
-
-    async def _drain(self, communicator):
-        while not await communicator.receive_nothing():
-            await communicator.receive_json_from()
-
-    async def _receive_until(self, communicator, message_type, limit=4):
-        for _ in range(limit):
-            message = await communicator.receive_json_from()
-            if message.get("type") == message_type:
-                return message
-        raise AssertionError(f"{message_type} was never received")
-
     @database_sync_to_async
     def _create_batch(self, organization=None, **kwargs):
         return self._create_batch_command(organization=organization, **kwargs)
@@ -175,13 +154,24 @@ def _set_skipped(self, batch, count):
             for index in range(count)
         }
         batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
-        return list(batch.skipped_devices)
+        batch.refresh_from_db(fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        return batch.skipped_devices
 
     async def test_batch_command_consumer_authorization(self, admin_user, admin_client):
+        async def connect_through_route(batch):
+            session_id = admin_client.cookies["sessionid"].value
+            communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
+                self.application,
+                path=f"{self.path}/{batch.pk}",
+                headers=[(b"cookie", f"sessionid={session_id}".encode("ascii"))],
+            )
+            connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
+            return communicator, connected
+
         org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
         org2 = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_org)(name="org2", slug="org2")
         batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
-        communicator, connected = await self._connect_through_route(admin_client, batch)
+        communicator, connected = await connect_through_route(batch)
         assert connected is True
         await communicator.disconnect()
         communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk)
@@ -241,7 +231,7 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
                 status="success",
                 output="line one\nline two",
             )
-        skipped_pks = await self._set_skipped(batch, 3)
+        skipped_pks = list(await self._set_skipped(batch, 3))
         await database_sync_to_async(batch.refresh_from_db)()
         communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
         assert connected is True
@@ -253,7 +243,8 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
             assert page1["type"] == "batch_state"
             assert page1["total_rows"] == 4
             batch_status = page1["batch_status"]
-            assert batch_status["status_display"] == batch.get_status_display()
+            assert batch_status["status"] == batch.status
+            assert "status_display" not in batch_status
             assert batch_status["affected_devices"] == 1
             assert batch_status["skipped_count"] == 3
             assert [row["device"] for row in batch_status["skipped_preview"]] == (
@@ -266,9 +257,13 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
             ]
             command_row = page1["commands"][0]
             assert command_row["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
-            assert command_row["status_display"] == command.get_status_display()
+            assert command_row["status"] == command.status
+            assert "status_display" not in command_row
             assert command_row["output"] == "… line two"
-            assert command_row["modified"]
+            assert (
+                command_row["modified"]
+                == timezone.localtime(command.modified).isoformat()
+            )
             assert "input" not in command_row
             await communicator.send_json_to(
                 {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 2}
@@ -276,6 +271,23 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
             page2 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
             assert [row["device"] for row in page2["commands"]] == skipped_pks[1:]
             assert all(row["is_skipped"] for row in page2["commands"])
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {
+                    "type": "request_current_state",
+                    "page": 1,
+                    "filters": {"group_id": str(uuid4())},
+                }
+            )
+            filtered = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert filtered["total_rows"] == 0
+            assert filtered["commands"] == []
+            for value in ([1], "abc", 7):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(
+                    {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1, "filters": value}
+                )
+                response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                assert response["type"] == "batch_state"
+                assert response["total_rows"] == page1["total_rows"]
             for page in (0, -1, "abc", None):
                 await communicator.send_json_to(
                     {"type": "request_current_state", "page": page}
@@ -297,6 +309,39 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
         assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
         await communicator.disconnect()
 
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_access_revoked(self, admin_user):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+
+        def push_batch_status():
+            batch.status = "in-progress"
+            batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
+
+        manager = await self._create_staff(
+            "revoked-manager", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand"]
+        )
+
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is True
+        await database_sync_to_async(manager.user_permissions.clear)()
+        await communicator.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1})
+        assert await communicator.receive_output() == {"type": "websocket.close"}
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+        await database_sync_to_async(manager.user_permissions.set)(
+            await database_sync_to_async(list)(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is True
+        await database_sync_to_async(
+            OrganizationUser.objects.filter(user=manager, organization=org).delete
+        )()
+        await database_sync_to_async(push_batch_status)()
+        assert await communicator.receive_output() == {"type": "websocket.close"}
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
     async def test_batch_command_consumer_invalid_messages(self, admin_user):
         org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
         batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
@@ -311,11 +356,24 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_invalid_messages(self, admin_user):
             for message in ({"type": "unknown"}, {}):
                 await communicator.send_json_to(message)
                 assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
-            assert logger.warning.call_count == 6
+            await communicator.send_to(bytes_data=b"\x00\x01")
+            assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+            assert logger.warning.call_count == 7
         await communicator.disconnect()
 
     @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
     async def test_batch_command_consumer_updates(self, mocked_connect, admin_user):
+        async def drain(communicator):
+            while not await communicator.receive_nothing():
+                await communicator.receive_json_from()
+
+        async def receive_until(communicator, message_type, limit=4):
+            for _ in range(limit):
+                message = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                if message.get("type") == message_type:
+                    return message
+            raise AssertionError(f"{message_type} was never received")
+
         org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
         device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
         batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
@@ -334,37 +392,39 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_updates(self, mocked_connect, admin_user):
                 type="custom",
                 input={"command": "echo test"},
             )
-        created = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        created = await receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
         assert created["id"] == str(command.pk)
+        assert created["status"] == command.status
+        assert "status_display" not in created
+        assert created["modified"] == timezone.localtime(command.modified).isoformat()
         assert created["index"] == 0
         assert created["affected_devices"] == 1
         assert created["total_rows"] == 1
         assert created["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
         assert "input" not in created
-        assert await self._receive_until(watcher, "command_update") == created
+        assert await receive_until(watcher, "command_update") == created
         assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
         command.status = "success"
         command.output = "done"
         await database_sync_to_async(command.save)()
-        updated = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        updated = await receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
         assert updated["status"] == "success"
         assert updated["output"] == "done"
         assert "index" not in updated
-        await self._drain(communicator)
-        await self._set_skipped(batch, 2)
-        status = await self._receive_until(communicator, "batch_status")
+        await drain(communicator)
+        skipped = await self._set_skipped(batch, 2)
+        status = await receive_until(communicator, "batch_status")
         assert status["skipped_count"] == 2
         assert [row["device_name"] for row in status["skipped_preview"]] == [
-            "skipped0",
-            "skipped1",
+            row["name"] for row in skipped.values()
         ]
         assert status["affected_devices"] == 1
         assert status["total_rows"] == 3
         # updates are namespaced per batch
         assert await other.receive_nothing() is True
         with mock.patch.object(
-            apps.layers, "get_channel_layer", side_effect=RuntimeError("no layer")
-        ), mock.patch.object(apps, "logger") as logger, mock.patch.object(
+            handlers.layers, "get_channel_layer", side_effect=RuntimeError("no layer")
+        ), mock.patch.object(handlers, "logger") as logger, mock.patch.object(
             Command, "_schedule_command"
         ):
             await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index b9a086319..5c2e922a0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -5,7 +5,9 @@
 from django.contrib import admin
 from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
+from django.db import connection as db_connection
 from django.test import TestCase, override_settings
+from django.test.utils import CaptureQueriesContext
 from django.urls import reverse
 from swapper import load_model
 
@@ -16,6 +18,7 @@
 )
 
 from ... import settings as module_settings
+from ...config.admin import DeviceAdmin
 from ...tests import _get_updated_templates_settings
 from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
 from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin, BatchCommandExecutionForm
@@ -300,9 +303,9 @@ class TestBatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommandMixin, TestCase):
 
     def setUp(self):
         self._create_admin()
-        self.execute_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_execute")
-        self.confirm_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_confirm")
-        self.changelist_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_changelist")
+        self.execute_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_execute")
+        self.confirm_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_confirm")
+        self.changelist_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_changelist")
 
     def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
         org = self._get_org()
@@ -311,6 +314,7 @@ def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
         device2 = self._create_device(
             name="device2", mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:02", organization=org2
         )
+
         with self.subTest("view permission is not enough"):
             viewer = self._create_operator(
                 organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
@@ -322,6 +326,7 @@ def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
             self.client.force_login(viewer)
             self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 403)
             self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.confirm_url).status_code, 403)
+
         with self.subTest("the operator group can reach the wizard"):
             operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
             self.client.force_login(operator)
@@ -329,9 +334,11 @@ def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
                 BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site).has_add_permission(None)
             )
             self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 200)
+
         with self.subTest("a target is required for non superusers"):
             response = self._post_execute()
             self.assertContains(response, "Please select at least one of")
+
         with self.subTest("devices of unmanaged organizations are not reachable"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             wizard["organization_id"] = str(org2.pk)
@@ -344,6 +351,7 @@ def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
                 "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
             )
             self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+
         with self.subTest("superusers may target every device"):
             self._login()
             self._start_wizard()
@@ -366,21 +374,25 @@ def test_wizard_incompatible_scopes(self):
         device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
         operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org, org2])
         self.client.force_login(operator)
+
         with self.subTest("group of another organization"):
             response = self._post_execute(
                 organization=str(org.pk), group=str(group2.pk)
             )
             self.assertIn("group", response.context["form"].errors)
+
         with self.subTest("location of another organization"):
             response = self._post_execute(
                 organization=str(org.pk), location=str(location2.pk)
             )
             self.assertIn("location", response.context["form"].errors)
+
         with self.subTest("the organization is derived from the group"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(group=str(group.pk))
             self.assertEqual(wizard["group_id"], str(group.pk))
             response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 1)
+
         with self.subTest("scopes which share no devices"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(
                 organization=str(org.pk),
@@ -409,16 +421,19 @@ def test_wizard_form_fields(self):
         )
         operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
         self.client.force_login(operator)
+
         with self.subTest("choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
             form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
             self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["organization"].queryset), [org])
             self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["group"].queryset), [group])
             self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["location"].queryset), [location])
+
         with self.subTest("types are limited to the enabled commands"):
             with patch.dict(ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS, {str(org.pk): ("reboot",)}):
                 form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
                 choices = form.fields["type"].choices
                 self.assertEqual([value for value, _ in choices], ["", "reboot"])
+
         with self.subTest("superusers are not restricted"):
             self._login()
             form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
@@ -428,13 +443,46 @@ def test_wizard_form_fields(self):
 
     def test_wizard_schema_view(self):
         org = self._get_org()
-        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_schema")
+        url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_schema")
+
         with self.subTest("superusers get every enabled type"):
             self._login()
             schemas = self.client.get(url).json()
             form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
             choices = {value for value, _ in form.fields["type"].choices if value}
             self.assertEqual(set(schemas), choices)
+
+        with self.subTest("superusers get the schemas of every organization"):
+            with patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+                {
+                    "__all__": {"reboot": COMMANDS["reboot"]["schema"]},
+                    str(org.pk): {
+                        "change_password": COMMANDS["change_password"]["schema"]
+                    },
+                },
+                clear=True,
+            ):
+                response = self.client.get(url)
+                self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+                self.assertEqual(sorted(response.json()), ["change_password", "reboot"])
+
+        with self.subTest("superusers do not need an __all__ configuration"):
+            with patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+                {str(org.pk): {"reboot": COMMANDS["reboot"]["schema"]}},
+                clear=True,
+            ):
+                response = self.client.get(url)
+                self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+                self.assertEqual(list(response.json()), ["reboot"])
+
+        with self.subTest("an empty configuration returns an empty object"):
+            with patch.dict(ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA, {}, clear=True):
+                response = self.client.get(url)
+                self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+                self.assertEqual(response.json(), {})
+
         with self.subTest("managers get the union of their organizations"):
             operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
             self.client.force_login(operator)
@@ -443,6 +491,7 @@ def test_wizard_schema_view(self):
                 {str(org.pk): {"reboot": COMMANDS["reboot"]["schema"]}},
             ):
                 self.assertEqual(list(self.client.get(url).json()), ["reboot"])
+
         with self.subTest("the add permission is required"):
             viewer = self._create_operator(
                 organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
@@ -477,6 +526,148 @@ def test_wizard_organization_guard_survives_a_wider_queryset(self):
         self.assertFalse(form.is_valid())
         self.assertEqual(form.errors["group"], ["Select a valid choice."])
 
+    def test_wizard_views_reject_unsupported_methods(self):
+        self._login()
+        response = self.client.delete(self.execute_url)
+        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 405)
+        self.assertEqual(response["Allow"], "GET, POST")
+        response = self.client.delete(self.confirm_url)
+        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 405)
+        self.assertEqual(response["Allow"], "GET, POST")
+
+    def test_wizard_back_restores_the_form(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="back-group", organization=org)
+        self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        self._login()
+        self._post_execute(
+            type="custom",
+            input='{"command": "echo back"}',
+            label="back-label",
+            notes="back notes",
+            organization=str(org.pk),
+            group=str(group.pk),
+        )
+        form = self.client.get(f"{self.execute_url}?back=1").context["form"]
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["type"], "custom")
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["input"], {"command": "echo back"})
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["label"], "back-label")
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["notes"], "back notes")
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["organization"], str(org.pk))
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial["group"], str(group.pk))
+        self.assertIsNone(form.initial["location"])
+        self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+        form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+        self.assertEqual(form.initial, {})
+        self.assertNotIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+
+    def test_wizard_device_admin_composition(self):
+        class ReplacementDeviceAdmin(DeviceAdmin):
+            change_list_template = "admin/connection/replacement_change_list.html"
+            readonly_fields = ["last_ip"]
+
+            def monitoring_status(self, obj):
+                return "ok"
+
+            monitoring_status.short_description = "monitoring status"
+
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        device_admin_class = type(admin.site.get_model_admin(Device))
+        admin.site.unregister(Device)
+        admin.site.register(Device, ReplacementDeviceAdmin)
+        try:
+            registered_readonly = list(ReplacementDeviceAdmin.readonly_fields)
+            device_admin = model_admin.get_device_admin(Device.objects.none())
+            model_admin.get_device_admin(Device.objects.none())
+            template = model_admin.get_device_changelist_template()
+        finally:
+            admin.site.unregister(Device)
+            admin.site.register(Device, device_admin_class)
+
+        self.assertIsInstance(device_admin, ReplacementDeviceAdmin)
+        self.assertTrue(hasattr(device_admin, "monitoring_status"))
+        self.assertEqual(template, "admin/connection/replacement_change_list.html")
+        self.assertIn("last_ip", device_admin.readonly_fields)
+        self.assertEqual(
+            list(ReplacementDeviceAdmin.readonly_fields), registered_readonly
+        )
+
+        with self.subTest("a registration without a template falls back"):
+
+            class BareDeviceAdmin(DeviceAdmin):
+                change_list_template = None
+
+            admin.site.unregister(Device)
+            admin.site.register(Device, BareDeviceAdmin)
+            try:
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    model_admin.get_device_changelist_template(),
+                    "admin/change_list.html",
+                )
+            finally:
+                admin.site.unregister(Device)
+                admin.site.register(Device, device_admin_class)
+
+        self.assertIs(type(admin.site.get_model_admin(Device)), device_admin_class)
+
+    def test_wizard_and_detail_query_budget(self):
+        """The pages must not run a query per listed row.
+
+        The absolute count depends on caches which are warm or cold depending
+        on what ran before, so the budget asserted here is that listing three
+        times as many rows costs exactly the same number of queries.
+        """
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"budget{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:55:{index:02x}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(4)
+        ]
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        self._create_commands(batch, devices)
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": "skipped-device", "error": "no credentials"}
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        more_devices = [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"budget-more{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:56:{index:02x}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(8)
+        ]
+        self._login()
+
+        with self.subTest("the confirm page"):
+            self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as few:
+                self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as many:
+                response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], len(devices) + 8)
+            self.assertEqual(len(many.captured_queries), len(few.captured_queries))
+
+        with self.subTest("the detail page"):
+            url = reverse(
+                f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]
+            )
+            self.client.get(url)
+            with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as few:
+                self.client.get(url)
+            self._create_commands(batch, more_devices)
+            self.client.get(url)
+            with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as many:
+                response = self.client.get(url)
+            self.assertEqual(len(response.context["commands"]), len(devices) + 8 + 1)
+            self.assertEqual(len(many.captured_queries), len(few.captured_queries))
+
     def test_wizard_review_step_input(self):
         model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
         cases = (
@@ -489,6 +680,8 @@ def test_wizard_review_step_input(self):
                 "service: firewall, action: restart",
             ),
             ({"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"}, ""),
+            ({"newPassword": "tester123"}, ""),
+            ({"Password": "tester123", "host": "10.0.0.1"}, "host: 10.0.0.1"),
         )
         for command_input, expected in cases:
             with self.subTest(str(command_input)):
@@ -498,33 +691,49 @@ def test_wizard_recovers_from_unresolvable_targets(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         self._create_device(organization=org)
         self._login()
+
         with self.subTest("a confirm page without a wizard restarts"):
             response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+
         with self.subTest("targets which cannot be resolved list no devices"):
             self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             with patch.object(
                 BatchCommand, "dry_run", side_effect=ValidationError("broken")
             ):
-                response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+                with self.assertLogs(
+                    "openwisp_controller.connection.admin", level="WARNING"
+                ) as logs:
+                    response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
                 self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 0)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "Failed to resolve devices for mass command wizard", logs.output[0]
+            )
+
         with self.subTest("a batch which disappears restarts"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             with patch.object(BatchCommand, "execute", side_effect=Device.DoesNotExist):
-                response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+                with self.assertLogs(
+                    "openwisp_controller.connection.admin", level="WARNING"
+                ) as logs:
+                    response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
             self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
             self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn("Failed to execute mass command wizard", logs.output[0])
+            self.assertIn(str(org.pk), logs.output[0])
 
     def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         self._create_device(organization=org)
         self._login()
         restart_message = "Please fill in the mass command details to continue."
+
         with self.subTest("no wizard in the session"):
             response = self._post_confirm("any-token")
             self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
             self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+
         with self.subTest("a token from another tab"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -532,6 +741,7 @@ def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
             self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
             self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
             self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+
         with self.subTest("double submit"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -542,6 +752,7 @@ def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
             self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
             self.assertEqual(list(BatchCommand.objects.all()), [batch])
         BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+
         with self.subTest("the targeted devices changed"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -571,6 +782,7 @@ def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
             for index in range(1, 4)
         ]
         self._login()
+
         with self.subTest("excluded devices are left out"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -578,6 +790,7 @@ def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
             self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[:-1]))
         BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+
         with self.subTest("malformed entries are ignored"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -588,6 +801,7 @@ def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
             self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[1:]))
         BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+
         with self.subTest("excluding every device"):
             wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
@@ -609,14 +823,19 @@ def test_changelist_multitenancy(self):
         batch2 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="other-label")
         operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
         self.client.force_login(operator)
+
         with self.subTest("only managed organizations are listed"):
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
             queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
             self.assertIn(batch, queryset)
             self.assertNotIn(batch2, queryset)
+
         with self.subTest("an unmanaged batch cannot be opened"):
-            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk])
+            url = reverse(
+                f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk]
+            )
             self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 302)
+
         with self.subTest("superusers see every batch"):
             self._login()
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
@@ -653,11 +872,13 @@ def test_changelist_filters_and_search(self):
                 response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, params)
                 queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
                 self.assertEqual(list(queryset), [expected])
+
         with self.subTest("combined filters exclude everything"):
             response = self.client.get(
                 self.changelist_url, {"status": "success", "type": "custom"}
             )
             self.assertEqual(response.context["cl"].queryset.count(), 0)
+
         with self.subTest("affected devices is orderable and not duplicated"):
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"o": "5"})
             queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
@@ -669,17 +890,22 @@ def test_changelist_is_read_only(self):
         self._login()
         model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
         response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+
         with self.subTest("no bulk actions"):
             self.assertNotIn(
                 "delete_selected", model_admin.get_actions(response.wsgi_request)
             )
+
         with self.subTest("adding and deleting are disabled"):
             self.assertFalse(model_admin.has_add_permission(response.wsgi_request))
             self.assertFalse(
                 model_admin.has_delete_permission(response.wsgi_request, batch)
             )
+
         with self.subTest("no save buttons on the change page"):
-            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            url = reverse(
+                f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]
+            )
             response = self.client.get(url)
             self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save"])
             self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save_and_continue"])
@@ -723,9 +949,16 @@ def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
         batch.skipped_devices = {
             str(uuid4()): {"name": "skipped-device", "error": "no credentials"}
         }
+        batch.skipped_devices.update(
+            {
+                str(uuid4()): {"name": f"skipped{index}", "error": "no credentials"}
+                for index in range(4)
+            }
+        )
+        skipped_names = [skipped["name"] for skipped in batch.skipped_devices.values()]
         batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
         self._login()
-        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
         with patch.object(BatchCommandAdmin, "device_commands_per_page", 3):
             with self.subTest("first page"):
                 rows = self.client.get(url).context["commands"]
@@ -736,14 +969,49 @@ def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
                 self.assertEqual(rows[0]["output"], "… last")
                 self.assertEqual(rows[0]["status_display"], "in progress")
                 self.assertFalse(rows[0]["is_skipped"])
+
             with self.subTest("the page spanning commands and skipped devices"):
                 rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
-                self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False, True])
-                self.assertEqual(rows[-1]["device_name"], "skipped-device")
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False, True, True]
+                )
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [row["device_name"] for row in rows[1:]], skipped_names[:2]
+                )
+
+            with self.subTest("a page made of skipped devices only"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 3}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [True] * 3)
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [row["device_name"] for row in rows], skipped_names[2:]
+                )
+
+            with self.subTest("the unfiltered page does not copy the skipped devices"):
+                filters = {
+                    "q": "",
+                    "status": "",
+                    "location_id": "",
+                    "group_id": "",
+                    "organization_id": "",
+                }
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    batch.filter_skipped_items(filters),
+                    batch.skipped_devices.items(),
+                )
+                filters["q"] = "skipped0"
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [
+                        skipped["name"]
+                        for _pk, skipped in batch.filter_skipped_items(filters)
+                    ],
+                    ["skipped0"],
+                )
+
             with self.subTest("an unusable page falls back to the first"):
                 for page in ("abc", 0, 99):
                     response = self.client.get(url, {"page": page})
                     self.assertEqual(response.context["page_obj"].number, 1)
+
             with self.subTest("the newest command is last"):
                 rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
                 self.assertEqual(rows[0]["device"], commands[-1].device.pk)
@@ -766,26 +1034,54 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
             group=other_group,
         )
         self._create_commands(batch, [device], status="success")
+        transferred_group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(
+            name="transferred-group", organization=org2
+        )
+        transferred_location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="transferred-location", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        transferred_device = self._create_device(
+            name="transferred-device",
+            mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:89",
+            organization=org2,
+            group=transferred_group,
+        )
+        DeviceLocation.objects.create(
+            content_object=transferred_device, location=transferred_location
+        )
         batch.skipped_devices = {
             str(skipped_device.pk): {
                 "name": skipped_device.name,
                 "error": "no credentials",
-            }
+            },
+            str(transferred_device.pk): {
+                "name": transferred_device.name,
+                "error": "no longer belongs to the organization",
+            },
         }
         batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
         self._login()
-        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+
         with self.subTest("search matches commands and skipped devices"):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": device.name}).context["commands"]
             self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], [device.name])
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
             self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+
         with self.subTest("status skipped hides the commands"):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
-            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [True])
+            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [True, True])
+
         with self.subTest("status success hides the skipped devices"):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"}).context["commands"]
             self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False])
+
+        with self.subTest("the all choice clears the only active filter"):
+            specs = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"}).context["filter_specs"]
+            self.assertEqual(specs[0].choices[0]["display"], "All")
+            self.assertEqual(specs[0].choices[0]["query_string"], "?")
+
         with self.subTest("groups of skipped devices are offered as filters"):
             response = self.client.get(url)
             titles = {
@@ -796,11 +1092,13 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
             ]
             self.assertIn(other_group.name, displays)
             self.assertIn(group.name, displays)
+
         with self.subTest("filtering by a group keeps only its devices"):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"group_id": str(other_group.pk)}).context[
                 "commands"
             ]
             self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+
         with self.subTest("filtering by location"):
             DeviceLocation.objects.create(
                 content_object=skipped_device, location=location
@@ -812,6 +1110,7 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
                 sorted(row["device_name"] for row in rows),
                 sorted([device.name, "skipped-device"]),
             )
+
         with self.subTest("filtering by organization"):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org.pk)}).context[
                 "commands"
@@ -823,14 +1122,34 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
             rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org2.pk)}).context[
                 "commands"
             ]
-            self.assertEqual(rows, [])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device_name"] for row in rows], [transferred_device.name]
+            )
+
         with self.subTest("the organization filter is for superusers only"):
             operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
             self.client.force_login(operator)
             response = self.client.get(url)
             titles = [str(spec.title) for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]]
             self.assertNotIn("organization", titles)
+
+        with self.subTest("the filters do not offer other organizations"):
+            specs = {
+                str(spec.title): [str(choice["display"]) for choice in spec.choices]
+                for spec in self.client.get(url).context["filter_specs"]
+            }
+            self.assertNotIn(transferred_group.name, specs["device group"])
+            self.assertIn(other_group.name, specs["device group"])
+            self.assertNotIn(transferred_location.name, specs["location"])
+            self.assertIn(location.name, specs["location"])
             self._login()
+            specs = {
+                str(spec.title): [str(choice["display"]) for choice in spec.choices]
+                for spec in self.client.get(url).context["filter_specs"]
+            }
+            self.assertIn(transferred_group.name, specs["device group"])
+            self.assertIn(transferred_location.name, specs["location"])
+
         with self.subTest("the search term is not an active filter"):
             response = self.client.get(url, {"q": "anything"})
             self.assertFalse(response.context["has_active_filters"])
@@ -842,14 +1161,17 @@ def test_change_view_display_fields(self):
         org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
         batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
         model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+
         with self.subTest("organization display"):
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.organization_display(batch), org.name)
             shared = self._create_batch_command(organization=None, label="shared")
             self.assertEqual(str(model_admin.organization_display(shared)), "All")
+
         with self.subTest("colored status"):
             self.assertIn(
                 f"command-status {batch.status}", model_admin.colored_status(batch)
             )
+
         with self.subTest("formatted input"):
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(batch), "echo test")
             empty_batch = self._create_batch_command(
@@ -870,10 +1192,12 @@ def test_change_view_display_fields(self):
                 input={"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"},
             )
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(password_batch), "********")
+
         with self.subTest("affected devices falls back to the model"):
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 0)
             batch._affected_devices = 7
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 7)
+
         with self.subTest("skipped devices rendering"):
             self.assertEqual(model_admin.display_skipped_devices(batch), "-")
             batch.skipped_devices = {
@@ -884,6 +1208,7 @@ def test_change_view_display_fields(self):
             self.assertIn("12", rendered)
             self.assertIn("device0: failed", rendered)
             self.assertIn("…", rendered)
+
         with self.subTest("commands of unmanaged organizations are hidden"):
             device2 = self._create_device(
                 name="device-org2",
@@ -915,32 +1240,38 @@ def test_changelist_filter_classes(self):
         operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
         self.client.force_login(operator)
         request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+
         with self.subTest("type lookups are limited to the managed organizations"):
             type_filter = TypeFilter(request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
             self.assertEqual(
                 type_filter.lookups(request, model_admin),
                 [("custom", "Custom commands")],
             )
+
         with self.subTest("type lookups list every type for superusers"):
             self._login()
             admin_request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
             type_filter = TypeFilter(admin_request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
             lookups = dict(type_filter.lookups(admin_request, model_admin))
             self.assertEqual(set(lookups), {"custom", "reboot"})
+
         with self.subTest("type queryset"):
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"type": "reboot"})
             self.assertEqual(list(response.context["cl"].queryset), [batch2])
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
             self.assertEqual(set(response.context["cl"].queryset), {batch, batch2})
+
         with self.subTest("the parameter names match the change page filters"):
             self.assertEqual(GroupFilter.parameter_name, "group_id")
             self.assertEqual(LocationFilter.parameter_name, "location_id")
+
         with self.subTest("the filters are on the changelist"):
             self.client.force_login(operator)
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
             specs = {type(spec) for spec in response.context["cl"].filter_specs}
             self.assertIn(GroupFilter, specs)
             self.assertIn(LocationFilter, specs)
+
         with self.subTest("related choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
             self._create_administrator(organizations=[org])
             self._test_multitenant_admin(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
index 3dc38b041..39e71fdcc 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ def test_create_command_without_connection(self):
         )
         self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
         self.assertIn(
-            "Device has no credentials assigned",
+            "Device has no credentials assigned.",
             response.data["device"][0],
         )
 
@@ -1176,7 +1176,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_disallowed_type(self):
             )
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
             self.assertIn(
-                '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
+                '"custom" command is not available for the target organization(s)',
                 response.data["type"][0],
             )
 
@@ -2270,10 +2270,16 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 201)
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=response.data["batch"])
 
-            self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
-            self.assertIn(
-                '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
+            self.assertEqual(
+                batch.skipped_devices,
+                {
+                    str(device_b.pk): {
+                        "name": device_b.name,
+                        "error": (
+                            '"custom" command is not available for' " this organization"
+                        ),
+                    }
+                },
             )
             command_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=batch)
             self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_a).exists())
@@ -2306,6 +2312,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertEqual(detail_resp.status_code, 200)
             self.assertEqual(detail_resp.data["device_count"], 2)
             self.assertEqual(len(detail_resp.data["devices"]), 2)
+            self.assertEqual(detail_resp.data["skipped_devices"], batch.skipped_devices)
 
         with self.subTest("skipped: no credentials"):
             device = self._create_device(
@@ -2314,26 +2321,33 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
                 organization=org,
             )
             self._create_config(device=device)
-            response = self.client.post(
-                execute_url,
-                data=json.dumps(
-                    {
-                        "organization": str(org.pk),
-                        "type": "custom",
-                        "input": {"command": "echo test"},
-                        "label": "test-label",
-                        "devices": [str(device.pk)],
-                    }
-                ),
-                content_type="application/json",
-            )
+            with self.assertLogs(
+                "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models", level="WARNING"
+            ) as logs:
+                response = self.client.post(
+                    execute_url,
+                    data=json.dumps(
+                        {
+                            "organization": str(org.pk),
+                            "type": "custom",
+                            "input": {"command": "echo test"},
+                            "label": "test-label",
+                            "devices": [str(device.pk)],
+                        }
+                    ),
+                    content_type="application/json",
+                )
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 201)
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=response.data["batch"])
-
-            self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
-            self.assertIn(
-                "Device has no credentials assigned",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
+            self.assertIn("Skipping device", "\n".join(logs.output))
+            self.assertEqual(
+                batch.skipped_devices,
+                {
+                    str(device.pk): {
+                        "name": device.name,
+                        "error": "Device has no credentials assigned",
+                    }
+                },
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
@@ -2341,7 +2355,9 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             )
             detail_response = self.client.get(detail_url)
             self.assertEqual(detail_response.status_code, 200)
-            self.assertIn(str(device.pk), detail_response.data["skipped_devices"])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                detail_response.data["skipped_devices"], batch.skipped_devices
+            )
 
         with self.subTest("skipped: deactivated device"):
             device = self._create_device(
@@ -2356,26 +2372,33 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             )
             self._create_device_connection(device=device, credentials=dd_cred)
             device.deactivate()
-            response = self.client.post(
-                execute_url,
-                data=json.dumps(
-                    {
-                        "organization": str(org.pk),
-                        "type": "custom",
-                        "input": {"command": "echo test"},
-                        "label": "test-label",
-                        "devices": [str(device.pk)],
-                    }
-                ),
-                content_type="application/json",
-            )
+            with self.assertLogs(
+                "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models", level="WARNING"
+            ) as logs:
+                response = self.client.post(
+                    execute_url,
+                    data=json.dumps(
+                        {
+                            "organization": str(org.pk),
+                            "type": "custom",
+                            "input": {"command": "echo test"},
+                            "label": "test-label",
+                            "devices": [str(device.pk)],
+                        }
+                    ),
+                    content_type="application/json",
+                )
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 201)
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=response.data["batch"])
-
-            self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
-            self.assertIn(
-                "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
+            self.assertIn("Skipping device", "\n".join(logs.output))
+            self.assertEqual(
+                batch.skipped_devices,
+                {
+                    str(device.pk): {
+                        "name": device.name,
+                        "error": "Device is deactivated",
+                    }
+                },
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
@@ -2383,4 +2406,6 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             )
             detail_response = self.client.get(detail_url)
             self.assertEqual(detail_response.status_code, 200)
-            self.assertIn(str(device.pk), detail_response.data["skipped_devices"])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                detail_response.data["skipped_devices"], batch.skipped_devices
+            )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index d3531694b..e8c033701 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 
 from openwisp_utils.tests import capture_any_output, catch_signal
 
-from .. import apps
+from .. import handlers
 from .. import settings as app_settings
 from ..commands import (
     COMMANDS,
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin
 
 Config = load_model("config", "Config")
+LOGGER_NAME = "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models"
 Device = load_model("config", "Device")
 Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
@@ -641,7 +642,7 @@ def test_command_validation(self):
             self.assertIn("device", exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
                 exception.message_dict["device"],
-                ["Device has no credentials assigned"],
+                ["Device has no credentials assigned."],
             )
 
     def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
@@ -673,7 +674,7 @@ def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
                 command.clean()
             self.assertIn("device", ctx.exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
-                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated"]
+                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated."]
             )
 
     @tag("skip_prod")
@@ -1090,7 +1091,27 @@ def test_batch_command_skipped_devices(self):
                 [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(end=2)], pks[:2]
             )
             self.assertEqual(
-                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)], pks[-1:]
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(start=1, end=3)],
+                pks[1:3],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("count and device ids"):
+            self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_count, 3)
+            self.assertEqual(list(batch.skipped_device_ids), pks)
+
+        with self.subTest("items are not copied when nothing is filtered"):
+            self.assertEqual(batch.get_skipped_items(), skipped.items())
+
+        with self.subTest("items filtered by name"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [pk for pk, _skipped in batch.get_skipped_items(query="DEVICE1")],
+                pks[1:2],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("items filtered by device id"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [pk for pk, _skipped in batch.get_skipped_items(device_ids={pks[2]})],
+                pks[2:],
             )
 
         with self.subTest("preview within the limit"):
@@ -1157,7 +1178,42 @@ def test_batch_command_clean_validation(self):
                     batch.clean()
                 self.assertIn("type", ctx.exception.message_dict)
                 self.assertIn(
-                    "not available for this organization",
+                    "not available for the target organization(s)",
+                    ctx.exception.message_dict["type"][0],
+                )
+
+        with self.subTest("no command enabled for the organization"):
+            with mock.patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+                {str(uuid4()): ("reboot",)},
+                clear=True,
+            ):
+                batch = BatchCommand(
+                    organization=org,
+                    type="reboot",
+                    input=None,
+                    label="test-label",
+                )
+                with self.assertRaises(ValidationError) as ctx:
+                    batch.clean()
+                self.assertIn("type", ctx.exception.message_dict)
+                self.assertIn(
+                    "not available for the target organization(s)",
+                    ctx.exception.message_dict["type"][0],
+                )
+
+        with self.subTest("no command enabled system wide"):
+            with mock.patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+                {str(uuid4()): ("reboot",)},
+                clear=True,
+            ):
+                batch = BatchCommand(type="reboot", input=None, label="test-label")
+                with self.assertRaises(ValidationError) as ctx:
+                    batch.clean()
+                self.assertIn("type", ctx.exception.message_dict)
+                self.assertIn(
+                    "not available for the target organization(s)",
                     ctx.exception.message_dict["type"][0],
                 )
 
@@ -1234,7 +1290,9 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_deactivated_device(self):
             device = Device.objects.get(pk=device.pk)
             batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
             batch.devices.add(device)
-            batch.create_commands()
+            with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                batch.create_commands()
+            self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
             self.assertEqual(batch.batch_commands.count(), 0)
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
@@ -1250,7 +1308,9 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_no_credentials(self):
             organization=org,
             devices=[device],
         )
-        batch.create_commands()
+        with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+            batch.create_commands()
+        self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
         batch.refresh_from_db()
         self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
         self.assertIn(
@@ -1285,11 +1345,13 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                     organization=org,
                     devices=[device_a, device_b],
                 )
-                batch.create_commands()
+                with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                    batch.create_commands()
+                self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
                 batch.refresh_from_db()
                 self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
                 self.assertIn(
-                    '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
+                    "no longer belongs to the organization",
                     batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
                 )
                 db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
@@ -1298,6 +1360,25 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                 self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_a).exists())
                 self.assertFalse(command_qs.filter(device=device_b).exists())
 
+        with self.subTest("org command not allowed on a system wide batch"):
+            with mock.patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+                {"__all__": ("custom",), str(org2.pk): ("reboot",)},
+            ):
+                batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                    organization=None,
+                    devices=[device_b],
+                )
+                with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                    batch.create_commands()
+                self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
+                batch.refresh_from_db()
+                self.assertIn(
+                    '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
+                    batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
+                )
+                self.assertFalse(Command.objects.filter(batch_command=batch).exists())
+
         with self.subTest("mixed skip scenario"):
             device_ok = self._create_device(
                 name="device-ok",
@@ -1328,7 +1409,9 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                 organization=org,
                 devices=[device_ok, device_no_creds, device_deactivated],
             )
-            batch.create_commands()
+            with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                batch.create_commands()
+            self.assertEqual(len(logs.output), 2)
             batch.refresh_from_db()
             command_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=batch)
             self.assertEqual(command_qs.count(), 1)
@@ -1664,6 +1747,17 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_org_mismatch(self):
                 ctx.exception.message_dict["devices"][0],
             )
 
+        with self.subTest("a system wide batch accepts devices of different orgs"):
+            batch = BatchCommand.execute(
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                label="test-label",
+                devices=[device_org1, device_org2],
+                system_wide=True,
+            )
+            self.assertIsNone(batch.organization_id)
+            self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), {device_org1, device_org2})
+
         with self.subTest("group org mismatch"):
             group_org2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(
                 name="exec-mm-group",
@@ -1888,6 +1982,123 @@ def test_batch_command_calculate_and_update_status(self):
             batch2.refresh_from_db()
             self.assertEqual(batch2.modified, initial_modified)
 
+    def test_batch_command_status_rejects_a_stale_calculation(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        Command.objects.create(
+            batch_command=batch,
+            device=device,
+            connection=dc,
+            type=batch.type,
+            input={"command": "echo test"},
+            status="success",
+        )
+        BatchCommand.objects.filter(pk=batch.pk).update(status="in-progress")
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        original = BatchCommand._compute_status
+        calls = []
+
+        def compute(self):
+            calls.append(self.status)
+            if len(calls) == 1:
+                BatchCommand.objects.filter(pk=batch.pk).update(
+                    status="failed",
+                    skipped_devices={
+                        str(uuid4()): {"name": "device1", "error": "no credentials"}
+                    },
+                )
+                return "success"
+            return original(self)
+
+        with mock.patch.object(BatchCommand, "_compute_status", compute):
+            batch.calculate_and_update_status()
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        self.assertEqual(len(calls), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(batch.status, "failed")
+
+    def test_batch_command_status_is_written_once(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            Command.objects.create(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                connection=dc,
+                type=batch.type,
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+            )
+        BatchCommand.objects.filter(pk=batch.pk).update(status="in-progress")
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        modified = batch.modified
+
+        with mock.patch.object(BatchCommand, "save") as save:
+            with mock.patch.object(handlers, "send_batch_update") as publish:
+                batch.calculate_and_update_status()
+        save.assert_not_called()
+        publish.assert_called_once()
+        group, payload = publish.call_args[0]
+        self.assertEqual(group, f"config.batchcommand-{batch.pk}")
+        self.assertEqual(payload["status"], "success")
+        self.assertEqual(payload["type"], "batch_status")
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        self.assertEqual(batch.status, "success")
+        self.assertGreater(batch.modified, modified)
+
+    def test_batch_command_device_transferred_to_another_org(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch.devices.set([device])
+
+        with self.subTest("the transferred device is skipped at creation"):
+            device.organization = org2
+            device.save(update_fields=["organization"])
+            with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                batch.create_commands()
+            batch.refresh_from_db()
+            self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "no longer belongs to the organization",
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(batch.batch_commands.exists())
+
+        with self.subTest("a command of a transferred device is not executed"):
+            device.organization = org
+            device.save(update_fields=["organization"])
+            with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                command = Command.objects.create(
+                    batch_command=batch,
+                    device=device,
+                    connection=dc,
+                    type=batch.type,
+                    input={"command": "echo test"},
+                )
+            device.organization = org2
+            device.save(update_fields=["organization"])
+            with mock.patch.object(Command, "_exec_command") as exec_command:
+                with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                    command.execute()
+            exec_command.assert_not_called()
+            self.assertIn(
+                f"Not executing command {command.pk} of batch {batch.pk}",
+                logs.output[0],
+            )
+            self.assertIn(str(org2.pk), logs.output[0])
+            command.refresh_from_db()
+            self.assertEqual(command.status, "failed")
+            self.assertIn("no longer belongs to the organization", command.output)
+
     def test_batch_command_permissions(self):
         ct = ContentType.objects.get_by_natural_key(
             app_label=self.app_label, model="batchcommand"
@@ -2219,7 +2430,8 @@ def test_chunk_size(self):
                     name="Mocked Credential", auto_add=True, organization=org
                 )
 
-    def test_batch_command_broadcast_deferred_to_commit(self):
+    @mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command")
+    def test_batch_command_broadcast_deferred_to_commit(self, schedule_command):
         org = self._get_org()
         device = self._create_device(organization=org)
         self._create_config(device=device)
@@ -2232,18 +2444,36 @@ def test_batch_command_broadcast_deferred_to_commit(self):
             type=batch.type,
             input={"command": "echo test"},
         )
-        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
-            with self.subTest("nothing is sent before the transaction commits"):
-                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
+
+        def channel_layer():
+            layer = mock.MagicMock()
+            layer.group_send = mock.AsyncMock()
+            return layer
+
+        with self.subTest("nothing is sent before the transaction commits"):
+            layer = channel_layer()
+            with mock.patch.object(
+                handlers.layers, "get_channel_layer", return_value=layer
+            ):
+                with transaction.atomic():
+                    command = Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
+                    layer.group_send.assert_not_called()
+                layer.group_send.assert_called_once()
+            group, event = layer.group_send.call_args[0]
+            self.assertEqual(group, f"config.batchcommand-{batch.pk}")
+            self.assertEqual(event["type"], "send.update")
+            self.assertEqual(event["data"]["type"], "command_update")
+            self.assertEqual(event["data"]["id"], str(command.pk))
+            self.assertEqual(event["data"]["device_name"], device.name)
+
+        with self.subTest("a rolled back command is never broadcast"):
+            layer = channel_layer()
+            with mock.patch.object(
+                handlers.layers, "get_channel_layer", return_value=layer
+            ):
+                with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
                     with transaction.atomic():
                         Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
-                        layer.assert_not_called()
-                    layer.assert_called()
-            with self.subTest("a rolled back command is never broadcast"):
-                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
-                    with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
-                        with transaction.atomic():
-                            Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
-                            raise ValueError()
-                    layer.assert_not_called()
+                        raise ValueError()
+                layer.group_send.assert_not_called()
         self.assertEqual(batch.batch_commands.count(), 1)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 8d6221081..e8b86442d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1,12 +1,14 @@
 from time import sleep
+from unittest.mock import patch
 from urllib.parse import quote, urlparse
 from uuid import UUID
 
 from channels.testing import ChannelsLiveServerTestCase
 from django.apps import apps as django_apps
+from django.conf import settings as django_settings
 from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
 from django.contrib.staticfiles.testing import StaticLiveServerTestCase
-from django.test import tag
+from django.test import override_settings, tag
 from django.urls import reverse
 from selenium.webdriver.common.by import By
 from selenium.webdriver.support import expected_conditions as EC
@@ -98,6 +100,14 @@ def test_command_widget_on_device(self):
 
 
 @tag("selenium_tests")
+@override_settings(
+    CHANNEL_LAYERS={
+        "default": {
+            "BACKEND": "channels_redis.core.RedisChannelLayer",
+            "CONFIG": {"hosts": [f"{django_settings.REDIS_URL}/7"]},
+        }
+    }
+)
 class TestBatchCommandAdmin(
     TestGeoMixin,
     CreateDeviceGroupMixin,
@@ -287,28 +297,6 @@ def _fill_wizard(
                     target.name,
                 )
 
-    def _open_menu_item(self, group_label, item_label):
-        self.find_element(
-            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f'.mg-head[aria-label="{group_label}"]'
-        ).click()
-        self.find_element(
-            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
-            value=f'.menu-group.active a.mg-link[aria-label="{item_label}"]',
-            timeout=5,
-        ).click()
-
-    def _search(self, query):
-        table = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list")
-        search_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="searchbar")
-        search_field.clear()
-        search_field.send_keys(query)
-        search_field.submit()
-        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
-            lambda driver: f"q={quote(query)}" in driver.current_url
-        )
-        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(table))
-        self.hide_loading_overlay()
-
     def _filter_by(self, title, option):
         current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
         tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
@@ -370,25 +358,6 @@ def _autocomplete_options(self, param_name):
         self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#content").click()
         return options
 
-    def _filter_by_autocomplete(self, param_name, option):
-        current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
-        tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
-        self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
-        self.find_element(
-            by=By.XPATH,
-            value=(
-                "//li[contains(@class, 'select2-results__option')]"
-                f"[normalize-space()='{option}']"
-            ),
-        ).click()
-        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="ow-apply-filter").click()
-        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
-            lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
-        )
-        if tables:
-            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
-        self.hide_loading_overlay()
-
     def _filter_options(self, title):
         slug = title.replace(" ", "-")
         return [
@@ -442,12 +411,21 @@ def _wait_for_batch_result(self, label, status, count):
             timeout=5,
         )
         WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
-            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == [status] * count
+            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == [status] * count,
+            message=(
+                f'expected {count} command(s) with status "{status}",'
+                f" got {self._command_statuses()}"
+            ),
         )
 
     def _rows(self):
         return self.find_elements(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody tr")
 
+    def _device_rows(self):
+        return self.web_driver.find_elements(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list tbody tr[data-device-pk]"
+        )
+
     def _device_names(self):
         return [
             row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-name").text
@@ -477,6 +455,13 @@ def _summary(self):
         return summary
 
     def test_execute_batch_command(self):
+        """Walks the whole wizard for every command type and every target.
+
+        Covers custom, reboot and change password commands, the organization,
+        device group and location targets, the review page summary and device
+        list, the exclusion of unticked devices, and the results rendered on
+        the batch page after execution.
+        """
         org1 = self._get_org()
         org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
         devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 5)
@@ -607,7 +592,7 @@ def test_execute_batch_command(self):
             self._wait_for_review_page()
             summary = self._summary()
             self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {group1.name}")
-            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 device")
             self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
             self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
             self._wait_for_batch_result("small-group", "failed", 1)
@@ -628,7 +613,7 @@ def test_execute_batch_command(self):
             self._wait_for_review_page()
             summary = self._summary()
             self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {location1.name}")
-            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 device")
             self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [located_device.name])
             self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
             self._wait_for_batch_result("small-location", "failed", 1)
@@ -662,6 +647,44 @@ def test_execute_batch_command(self):
             self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 4)
             self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
 
+        with self.subTest("the exclusions do not survive a changed target set"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="small-swapped",
+                organization=org1,
+                group=group1,
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            ).click()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "0")
+            grouped_device.group = None
+            grouped_device.full_clean()
+            grouped_device.save()
+            located_device.group = group1
+            located_device.full_clean()
+            located_device.save()
+            self.open(self.confirm_url)
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            execute_button = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button")
+            excluded_field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.ID, value="id_excluded", wait_for="presence"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "1")
+            self.assertEqual(execute_button.text, "Execute on 1 device")
+            self.assertEqual(execute_button.get_attribute("disabled"), None)
+            self.assertEqual(excluded_field.get_attribute("value"), "")
+            execute_button.click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-swapped", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
+
         self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
 
     def test_execute_large_batch(self):
@@ -698,7 +721,7 @@ def test_execute_large_batch(self):
             select_all.click()
             self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "50")
 
-        with self.subTest("exclusions survive pagination"):
+        with self.subTest("an exclusion survives pagination and the batch"):
             checkbox = self.find_element(
                 by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
             )
@@ -725,7 +748,6 @@ def test_execute_large_batch(self):
             )
             self.assertEqual(checkbox.is_selected(), False)
 
-        with self.subTest("the excluded device is left out of the batch"):
             self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
             self._wait_for_batch_result("large-reboot", "failed", 20)
             label = self.find_element(
@@ -755,7 +777,189 @@ def test_execute_large_batch(self):
             )
             self.assertNotIn(excluded_name, command_names)
             self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_batch_command_live_updates(self):
+        """Rows, counters, output and status update over the websocket.
+
+        The page is opened while the batch is still running and is never
+        reloaded: every assertion below is satisfied only if batch-command.js
+        applies the pushed updates to the DOM.
+        """
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device, second_device = self._create_devices(org, 2)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, label="live-batch")
+        batch.status = "in-progress"
+        batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
+        self.login()
+        self.open(
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        )
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        self.assertEqual(self._device_rows(), [])
+
+        with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = Command.objects.create(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: self._command_device_names() == [device.name],
+            message="the created command was never pushed to the page",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["in progress"])
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            ).text,
+            "1",
+        )
+        command.status = "success"
+        command.output = "live output"
+        command._save_without_resurrecting()
+
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == ["success"],
+            message="the completed command was never pushed to the page",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .command-output pre"
+            ).text,
+            "live output",
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-colored_status .command-status"
+            ).text
+            == "success",
+            message="the batch status was never pushed to the page",
+        )
+
+        with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            Command.objects.create(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=second_device,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: sorted(self._command_device_names())
+            == sorted([device.name, second_device.name]),
+            message="the second command was never pushed to the page",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".results-container .paginator"
+            ).text,
+            "2 commands",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_batch_command_reconnect_on_a_filtered_page(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = self._create_devices(org, 3)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, label="filtered-batch")
+        commands = []
+        for index, device in enumerate(devices):
+            command = Command(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            command.full_clean()
+            with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                command.save()
+            command.status = "failed" if index else "success"
+            command._save_without_resurrecting()
+            commands.append(command)
+        self.login()
+        url = "{}?status=failed".format(
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        )
+        self.open(url)
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list tbody tr")
+        failed_names = sorted(command.device.name for command in commands[1:])
+        self.assertEqual(sorted(self._command_device_names()), failed_names)
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator").text,
+            "2 commands",
+        )
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "document.querySelector('#result_list tbody tr').remove();"
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(len(self._rows()), 1)
+        self.web_driver.execute_script("window.batchCommandWebSocket.refresh();")
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: len(
+                driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list tbody tr")
+            )
+            == 2
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(sorted(self._command_device_names()), failed_names)
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator").text,
+            "2 commands",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
 
+    def test_batch_command_live_updates_on_a_filtered_page(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = self._create_devices(org, 3)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, label="filtered-live")
+        commands = []
+        for index, device in enumerate(devices):
+            command = Command(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            command.full_clean()
+            with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                command.save()
+            command.status = "failed" if index else "success"
+            command._save_without_resurrecting()
+            commands.append(command)
+        self.login()
+        self.open(
+            "{}?status=failed".format(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            )
+        )
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list tbody tr")
+        self.assertEqual(
+            sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+            sorted(command.device.name for command in commands[1:]),
+        )
+        commands[0].status = "failed"
+        commands[0]._save_without_resurrecting()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: len(self._device_rows()) == 3,
+            message="the command which started matching the filter was never added",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(
+            sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+            sorted(command.device.name for command in commands),
+        )
+        commands[1].status = "success"
+        commands[1]._save_without_resurrecting()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: len(self._device_rows()) == 2,
+            message="the command which stopped matching the filter was never removed",
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(
+            sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+            sorted(command.device.name for command in [commands[0], commands[2]]),
+        )
         self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
 
     def test_batch_command_organization_isolation_and_permissions(self):
@@ -822,6 +1026,58 @@ def test_batch_command_organization_isolation_and_permissions(self):
             )
             self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
 
+        with self.subTest("the batch page of the operator is updated live"):
+            command = Command.objects.filter(
+                batch_command__label="isolated-reboot"
+            ).first()
+            command.status = "success"
+            command.output = "operator output"
+            command._save_without_resurrecting()
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+                lambda driver: sorted(self._command_statuses())
+                == ["failed", "success"],
+                message="the command update was never pushed to the page",
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .command-output pre"
+                ).text,
+                "operator output",
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the operator can exclude a device from the run"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="excluded-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            excluded_pk = checkbox.get_attribute("value")
+            checkbox.click()
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count").text, "1"
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("excluded-reboot", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertNotIn(
+                excluded_pk,
+                [row.get_attribute("data-device-pk") for row in self._rows()],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the add permission is checked again on the review page"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="revoked-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            operator.groups.clear()
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.TAG_NAME, value="body").text,
+                "403 Forbidden",
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(
+                BatchCommand.objects.filter(label="revoked-reboot").exists()
+            )
+
         with self.subTest("the view permission is not enough to execute"):
             viewer = self._create_operator(
                 organizations=[org1], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
@@ -844,6 +1100,53 @@ def test_batch_command_organization_isolation_and_permissions(self):
             )
 
     def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
+        """Covers reaching the wizard and the changelist from the menu, and
+        the searches and filters of both result tables: the batch changelist
+        (label, status, type, organization, group and location) and the device
+        table of a batch page.
+        """
+
+        def open_menu_item(group_label, item_label):
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f'.mg-head[aria-label="{group_label}"]'
+            ).click()
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f'.menu-group.active a.mg-link[aria-label="{item_label}"]',
+                timeout=5,
+            ).click()
+
+        def search(query):
+            table = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list")
+            search_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="searchbar")
+            search_field.clear()
+            search_field.send_keys(query)
+            search_field.submit()
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+                lambda driver: f"q={quote(query)}" in driver.current_url
+            )
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(table))
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+        def filter_by_autocomplete(param_name, option):
+            current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
+            tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+            self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.XPATH,
+                value=(
+                    "//li[contains(@class, 'select2-results__option')]"
+                    f"[normalize-space()='{option}']"
+                ),
+            ).click()
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="ow-apply-filter").click()
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+                lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
+            )
+            if tables:
+                WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
         org1 = self._get_org()
         org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
         devices = self._create_devices(org1, 50)
@@ -862,12 +1165,11 @@ def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
         )
         self.login()
 
-        with self.subTest("the wizard is reachable from the menu"):
+        with self.subTest("the wizard is reachable from the menu and runs"):
             self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
-            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command execute")
+            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command execute")
             self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
 
-        with self.subTest("the whole flow runs on every device"):
             self._fill_wizard(
                 type="Reboot",
                 label="menu-reboot",
@@ -896,19 +1198,18 @@ def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
             )
             self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
 
-        with self.subTest("the changelist is reachable from the menu"):
+        with self.subTest("the changelist is reachable and searchable"):
             self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
-            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command admin")
+            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command admin")
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
             self.assertEqual(
                 self._changelist_labels(),
                 ["menu-reboot", "location-batch", "group-batch", "org2-batch"],
             )
 
-        with self.subTest("the changelist search matches the label"):
-            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            search("menu-reboot")
             self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
-            self._search("no-such-batch")
+            search("no-such-batch")
             self.assertEqual(
                 self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator").text,
                 "0 Mass commands",
@@ -941,15 +1242,15 @@ def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
 
         with self.subTest("the changelist autocomplete filters narrow the results"):
-            self._filter_by_autocomplete("organization", org2.name)
+            filter_by_autocomplete("organization", org2.name)
             self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["org2-batch"])
             self.open(self.changelist_url)
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
-            self._filter_by_autocomplete("group_id", group1.name)
+            filter_by_autocomplete("group_id", group1.name)
             self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["group-batch"])
             self.open(self.changelist_url)
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
-            self._filter_by_autocomplete("location_id", location1.name)
+            filter_by_autocomplete("location_id", location1.name)
             self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["location-batch"])
             self.open(self.changelist_url)
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
@@ -981,10 +1282,10 @@ def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
                     args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
                 )
             )
-            self._search(searched_device.name)
+            search(searched_device.name)
             self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [searched_device.name])
             self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
-            self._search("no-such-device")
+            search("no-such-device")
             self.assertEqual(
                 self.find_element(
                     by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .empty-results"
@@ -1046,7 +1347,7 @@ def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
             organization_options = self._autocomplete_options("organization")
             self.assertIn(org1.name, organization_options)
             self.assertNotIn(org2.name, organization_options)
-            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            search("menu-reboot")
             self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
             self.open(self.changelist_url)
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 19896a465..2bca5329c 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 
 import uuid
 
-import django
 import django.core.serializers.json
 import django.db.migrations.operations.special
 import django.db.models.deletion
@@ -71,11 +70,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                     "type",
                     models.CharField(
                         max_length=16,
-                        choices=(
-                            connection_config.commands.COMMAND_CHOICES
-                            if django.VERSION < (5, 0)
-                            else connection_config.commands.get_command_choices
-                        ),
+                        choices=connection_config.commands.get_command_choices,
                     ),
                 ),
                 (
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/pytest.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/pytest.py
index 910268306..f5607be5f 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/pytest.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/pytest.py
@@ -1,3 +1,6 @@
+from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.pytest import (
+    TestBatchCommandConsumer as BaseTestBatchCommandConsumer,
+)
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.pytest import (
     TestCommandsConsumer as BaseTestCommandsConsumer,
 )
@@ -7,4 +10,9 @@ class TestCommandsConsumer(BaseTestCommandsConsumer):
     pass
 
 
+class TestBatchCommandConsumer(BaseTestBatchCommandConsumer):
+    app_label = "sample_connection"
+
+
+del BaseTestBatchCommandConsumer
 del BaseTestCommandsConsumer
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
index cc225d2ab..2b44503b6 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
@@ -1,3 +1,6 @@
+from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_admin import (
+    TestBatchCommandAdmin as BaseTestBatchCommandAdmin,
+)
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_admin import (
     TestCommandInlines as BaseTestCommandInlines,
 )
@@ -32,6 +35,10 @@ class TestCommandInlines(BaseTestCommandInlines):
     config_app_label = "sample_config"
 
 
+class TestBatchCommandAdmin(BaseTestBatchCommandAdmin):
+    app_label = "sample_connection"
+
+
 class TestModels(BaseTestModels):
     app_label = "sample_connection"
 
@@ -60,6 +67,7 @@ class TestConnectionApi(BaseTestConnectionApi):
     pass
 
 
+del BaseTestBatchCommandAdmin
 del BaseTestCommandInlines
 del BaseTestConnectionAdmin
 del BaseTestModels

From 32fbe95f1e76f068bae09057d662b2baaae9028e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Federico Capoano <f.capoano@openwisp.io>
Date: Fri, 4 Sep 2026 21:29:51 -0300
Subject: [PATCH 16/27] [chores] Easy code review findings fixed

---
 docs/user/rest-api.rst                        |  5 ++-
 docs/user/shell-commands.rst                  |  7 ++--
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst                   | 12 ++++--
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py | 14 ++++++-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  5 ++-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |  3 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 40 +++++++++++++++++++
 openwisp_controller/connection/tasks.py       |  3 ++
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  2 +
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                | 16 ++++++++
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            | 16 ++++----
 .../connection/tests/test_tasks.py            | 24 +++++++++++
 tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py    | 16 ++++++++
 13 files changed, 143 insertions(+), 20 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/rest-api.rst b/docs/user/rest-api.rst
index f007e3ba3..e0c90a20d 100644
--- a/docs/user/rest-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/rest-api.rst
@@ -506,7 +506,7 @@ Parameter        Description
                  ``?type=custom&input=%7B%22command%22%3A%22uptime%22%7D``
 ``devices``      Repeated ``devices`` query parameter, each a device UUID
                  (optional; when provided, ``group`` and ``location`` are
-                 ignored)
+                 ignored; all devices must belong to the same organization)
 ``group``        Device group UUID (optional)
 ``location``     Location UUID (optional)
 ================ =========================================================
@@ -534,7 +534,8 @@ Parameter        Description
                  (**required**)
 ``notes``        Optional notes (optional)
 ``devices``      List of device UUIDs (optional; when provided, ``group``
-                 and ``location`` are ignored)
+                 and ``location`` are ignored; all devices must belong to
+                 the same organization)
 ``group``        Device group UUID (optional)
 ``location``     Location UUID (optional)
 ================ =========================================================
diff --git a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
index 7e57b298c..bc1e7262e 100644
--- a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
+++ b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
@@ -273,6 +273,7 @@ Using the API
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
 The same operations are available over the REST API, which also accepts an
-explicit list of devices instead of the targets described above. Refer to
-the :ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>` documentation
-for the available endpoints, request parameters and examples.
+explicit list of devices instead of the targets described above. All
+explicit devices must belong to the same organization. Refer to the
+:ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>` documentation for
+the available endpoints, request parameters and examples.
diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index 400d015b6..f3082598f 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -273,10 +273,14 @@ The server replies with one message holding that page:
 
     {
         "type": "batch_state",
-        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Fields of the "batch_status" message,
-                                         // except "type" and "total_rows"
-        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page, in the shape
-                                         // of the "command_update" message
+        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Batch serializer fields, including
+                                         // the command type, but without
+                                         // "skipped_devices" or "total_rows"
+        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page. Command
+                                         // rows include the command type and omit
+                                         // event-only fields such as "index".
+                                         // Their "output" is a 100-character tail.
+        "page": <integer>,               // Effective page after bounds checking
         "total_rows": <integer>          // Rows matching the filters, for the paginator
     }
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 73d49b3e1..8d5258f76 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import logging
 from itertools import islice
+from uuid import UUID
 
 import jsonschema
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
@@ -861,10 +862,19 @@ def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
     def normalize_filters(filters):
         if not isinstance(filters, dict):
             filters = {}
-        return {
+        filters = {
             key: str(filters.get(key) or "")
             for key in ("q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id")
         }
+        # Sanitize UUID filters to ignore malformed client data.
+        for key in ("location_id", "group_id", "organization_id"):
+            if not filters[key]:
+                continue
+            try:
+                filters[key] = str(UUID(filters[key]))
+            except ValueError:
+                filters[key] = ""
+        return filters
 
     def filter_skipped_items(self, filters):
         related = (
@@ -1224,5 +1234,7 @@ def calculate_and_update_status(self):
             sender=self.__class__,
             instance=batch,
             created=False,
+            raw=False,
+            using=self._state.db,
             update_fields=frozenset({"status"}),
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 7b5017be2..9a2e0e236 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -115,6 +115,8 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
             page = 1
+        total_rows = commands_count + len(skipped_items)
+        page = min(page, max((total_rows - 1) // self.per_page + 1, 1))
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
         commands = []
@@ -136,7 +138,8 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
                     "type": "batch_state",
                     "batch_status": batch_status,
                     "commands": commands,
-                    "total_rows": commands_count + len(skipped_items),
+                    "page": page,
+                    "total_rows": total_rows,
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 288870bee..a2ec3a730 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@
 }
 .command-output pre {
   white-space: pre-wrap;
-  word-wrap: break-word;
+  overflow-wrap: break-word;
   margin: 0;
   padding: 0;
   font: inherit;
@@ -142,6 +142,7 @@
   --step-inactive-bg: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
   --step-inactive-text: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
   --arrow-color: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
+
   display: inline-flex;
   align-items: stretch;
   overflow: hidden;
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 562e5783f..f591d0059 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -62,6 +62,17 @@ function requestCurrentState($, websocket) {
 function handleCommandMessage($, data, websocket) {
   updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
   renderCommand($, data);
+  announceUpdate(
+    $,
+    interpolate(
+      gettext("Updated %(device)s: %(status)s"),
+      {
+        device: data.device_name,
+        status: getStatusLabel(data.status),
+      },
+      true,
+    ),
+  );
   if (hasActiveFilters()) {
     scheduleFilteredRefresh($, websocket);
   }
@@ -104,6 +115,18 @@ function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, websocket) {
   }
   updateSkippedDevices($, data);
   updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+  if (data.status) {
+    announceUpdate(
+      $,
+      interpolate(
+        gettext("Mass command status: %(status)s"),
+        {
+          status: getStatusLabel(data.status),
+        },
+        true,
+      ),
+    );
+  }
   const $table = $("#result_list");
   if (
     websocket &&
@@ -141,6 +164,9 @@ function updateSkippedDevices($, data) {
 }
 
 function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
+  if (data.page) {
+    $("#result_list").attr("data-current-page", data.page);
+  }
   if (data.batch_status) {
     handleBatchStatusMessage($, data.batch_status);
   }
@@ -174,6 +200,20 @@ function reconcileRows($, commands) {
       $(this).remove();
     }
   });
+  if (!commands.length && !$("#result_list td.empty-results").length) {
+    $("#result_list tbody").append(
+      $("<tr>").append(
+        $("<td>")
+          .attr("colspan", 4)
+          .addClass("empty-results")
+          .text(gettext("No commands found.")),
+      ),
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+function announceUpdate($, message) {
+  $("#batch-command-live-status").text(message);
 }
 
 function renderCommand($, data) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tasks.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tasks.py
index 6f61d4d0d..8f6fff490 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tasks.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tasks.py
@@ -84,10 +84,12 @@ def launch_command(command_id):
     except SoftTimeLimitExceeded:
         command.status = "failed"
         command._add_output(_("Background task time limit exceeded."))
+        command._clean_sensitive_info()
         command._save_without_resurrecting()
     except CommandTimeoutException as e:
         command.status = "failed"
         command._add_output(_(f"The command took longer than expected: {e}"))
+        command._clean_sensitive_info()
         command._save_without_resurrecting()
     except Exception as e:
         logger.exception(
@@ -95,6 +97,7 @@ def launch_command(command_id):
         )
         command.status = "failed"
         command._add_output(_(f"Internal system error: {e}"))
+        command._clean_sensitive_info()
         command._save_without_resurrecting()
 
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 4ff34b454..4cb4c9833 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -101,6 +101,8 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 </div>
 
 <div class="results-container">
+  {% comment "Allows screen readers to announce live batch progress without reading the whole result table." %}
+  <div id="batch-command-live-status" role="status" aria-live="polite" aria-atomic="true"></div>
   <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
     data-device-url="{% url device_opts|admin_urlname:'change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
     data-active-status="{{ request.GET.status|default:'' }}"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index f0cdac3df..53b42c0ca 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -271,6 +271,12 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
             page2 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
             assert [row["device"] for row in page2["commands"]] == skipped_pks[1:]
             assert all(row["is_skipped"] for row in page2["commands"])
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 3}
+            )
+            clamped_page = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert clamped_page["page"] == 2
+            assert clamped_page["commands"] == page2["commands"]
             await communicator.send_json_to(
                 {
                     "type": "request_current_state",
@@ -281,6 +287,16 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
             filtered = await communicator.receive_json_from()
             assert filtered["total_rows"] == 0
             assert filtered["commands"] == []
+            for field_name in ("group_id", "location_id", "organization_id"):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(
+                    {
+                        "type": "request_current_state",
+                        "page": 1,
+                        "filters": {field_name: "not-a-uuid"},
+                    }
+                )
+                response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                assert response["commands"] == page1["commands"]
             for value in ([1], "abc", 7):
                 await communicator.send_json_to(
                     {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1, "filters": value}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index 5c2e922a0..34ec4bd9d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -632,14 +632,6 @@ def test_wizard_and_detail_query_budget(self):
             str(uuid4()): {"name": "skipped-device", "error": "no credentials"}
         }
         batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
-        more_devices = [
-            self._create_device(
-                name=f"budget-more{index}",
-                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:56:{index:02x}",
-                organization=org,
-            )
-            for index in range(8)
-        ]
         self._login()
 
         with self.subTest("the confirm page"):
@@ -647,6 +639,14 @@ def test_wizard_and_detail_query_budget(self):
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as few:
                 self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            more_devices = [
+                self._create_device(
+                    name=f"budget-more{index}",
+                    mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:56:{index:02x}",
+                    organization=org,
+                )
+                for index in range(8)
+            ]
             self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             with CaptureQueriesContext(db_connection) as many:
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
index e88109ebe..43198929e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
@@ -186,6 +186,30 @@ def test_launch_command_exception(self, *args):
         self.assertEqual(command.status, "failed")
         self.assertEqual(command.output, "Internal system error: test error\n")
 
+    def test_launch_command_failure_cleans_change_password_input(self):
+        dc = self._create_device_connection()
+        password = "SuperSecret123"
+        errors = (
+            SoftTimeLimitExceeded(),
+            CommandTimeoutException("connection timed out after 30s"),
+            RuntimeError("test error"),
+        )
+        for error in errors:
+            with self.subTest(type(error).__name__):
+                command = Command(
+                    device=dc.device,
+                    connection=dc,
+                    type="change_password",
+                    input={"password": password, "confirm_password": password},
+                )
+                command.full_clean()
+                command.save()
+                with mock.patch.object(Command, "execute", side_effect=error):
+                    with redirect_stderr(StringIO()):
+                        tasks.launch_command(command.pk)
+                command.refresh_from_db()
+                self.assertNotIn(password, json.dumps(command.input))
+
     @mock.patch(
         "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models.AbstractCommand._exec_command"
     )
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
index 2b44503b6..b93bcff70 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/tests.py
@@ -7,6 +7,12 @@
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_admin import (
     TestConnectionAdmin as BaseTestConnectionAdmin,
 )
+from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_api import (
+    TestBatchCommandsAPI as BaseTestBatchCommandsAPI,
+)
+from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_api import (
+    TestBatchCommandsAPITransaction as BaseTestBatchCommandsAPITransaction,
+)
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.test_api import (
     TestConnectionApi as BaseTestConnectionApi,
 )
@@ -67,6 +73,14 @@ class TestConnectionApi(BaseTestConnectionApi):
     pass
 
 
+class TestBatchCommandsAPI(BaseTestBatchCommandsAPI):
+    pass
+
+
+class TestBatchCommandsAPITransaction(BaseTestBatchCommandsAPITransaction):
+    pass
+
+
 del BaseTestBatchCommandAdmin
 del BaseTestCommandInlines
 del BaseTestConnectionAdmin
@@ -77,3 +91,5 @@ class TestConnectionApi(BaseTestConnectionApi):
 del BaseTestNotifications
 del BaseTestNotificationTransaction
 del BaseTestConnectionApi
+del BaseTestBatchCommandsAPI
+del BaseTestBatchCommandsAPITransaction

From ab0145ba4e3bd66247ad1d043d05d41b0c94f98a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Federico Capoano <f.capoano@openwisp.io>
Date: Sat, 5 Sep 2026 00:08:40 -0300
Subject: [PATCH 17/27] [tests] Stabilized custom command Selenium test

---
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py            | 16 +++++++---------
 1 file changed, 7 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index e8b86442d..b4236a511 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1411,16 +1411,14 @@ def test_organization_scoped_custom_command_type(self):
             self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
             self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices1])
             self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
-            self._wait_for_batch_result("uci-show", "failed", 2)
-            command_type = self.find_element(
-                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
-            )
-            command_input = self.find_element(
-                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label="uci-show")
+            self._wait_for_url(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]
+                )
             )
-            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "UCI show")
-            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "config: network")
-            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
+            self.assertEqual(batch.type, "uci_show")
+            self.assertEqual(batch.input, {"config": "network"})
 
         with self.subTest("the changelist type filter offers the custom type"):
             self.open(self.changelist_url)

From 14c833c0480ac76a77fb4da54331f98984f96eb1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Federico Capoano <f.capoano@openwisp.io>
Date: Sat, 5 Sep 2026 00:41:49 -0300
Subject: [PATCH 18/27] [qa] Fixed qa

---
 docs/user/rest-api.rst                                | 3 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py | 4 +---
 2 files changed, 3 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/rest-api.rst b/docs/user/rest-api.rst
index e0c90a20d..d81a24bb3 100644
--- a/docs/user/rest-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/rest-api.rst
@@ -506,7 +506,8 @@ Parameter        Description
                  ``?type=custom&input=%7B%22command%22%3A%22uptime%22%7D``
 ``devices``      Repeated ``devices`` query parameter, each a device UUID
                  (optional; when provided, ``group`` and ``location`` are
-                 ignored; all devices must belong to the same organization)
+                 ignored; all devices must belong to the same
+                 organization)
 ``group``        Device group UUID (optional)
 ``location``     Location UUID (optional)
 ================ =========================================================
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index b4236a511..0bfc6f536 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1413,9 +1413,7 @@ def test_organization_scoped_custom_command_type(self):
             self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label="uci-show")
             self._wait_for_url(
-                reverse(
-                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]
-                )
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
             )
             self.assertEqual(batch.type, "uci_show")
             self.assertEqual(batch.input, {"config": "network"})

From 639be8e315e86087a641313b94c62b6e3b87c56c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Federico Capoano <f.capoano@openwisp.io>
Date: Sat, 5 Sep 2026 15:23:20 -0300
Subject: [PATCH 19/27] [chores] Fixed django comment

---
 .../connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html     | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 4cb4c9833..5108d2cd5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 </div>
 
 <div class="results-container">
-  {% comment "Allows screen readers to announce live batch progress without reading the whole result table." %}
+  {# Allows screen readers to announce live batch progress without reading the whole result table. #}
   <div id="batch-command-live-status" role="status" aria-live="polite" aria-atomic="true"></div>
   <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
     data-device-url="{% url device_opts|admin_urlname:'change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"

From 972d10bfe8efc335737b99779c0479eea0e26db7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Federico Capoano <f.capoano@openwisp.io>
Date: Sat, 5 Sep 2026 15:33:15 -0300
Subject: [PATCH 20/27] [tests] Captured batch command test output

---
 .../connection/tests/test_api.py              | 14 ++++++----
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  4 ++-
 .../connection/tests/test_tasks.py            | 26 ++++++++++++-------
 3 files changed, 28 insertions(+), 16 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
index 39e71fdcc..81a08b47f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
@@ -2262,12 +2262,16 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
                 "input": {"command": "echo test"},
                 "label": "test-label",
             }
-            response = self.client.post(
-                execute_url,
-                data=json.dumps(payload),
-                content_type="application/json",
-            )
+            with self.assertLogs(
+                "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models", level="WARNING"
+            ) as logs:
+                response = self.client.post(
+                    execute_url,
+                    data=json.dumps(payload),
+                    content_type="application/json",
+                )
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 201)
+            self.assertIn("Skipping device", "\n".join(logs.output))
             batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=response.data["batch"])
 
             self.assertEqual(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index e8c033701..5fb74254c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -2064,8 +2064,10 @@ def test_batch_command_device_transferred_to_another_org(self):
             device.organization = org2
             device.save(update_fields=["organization"])
             with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
-                batch.create_commands()
+                with self.assertLogs(LOGGER_NAME, level="WARNING") as logs:
+                    batch.create_commands()
             batch.refresh_from_db()
+            self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "no longer belongs to the organization",
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
index 43198929e..e450dbb1e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
@@ -1,7 +1,5 @@
 import json
 import uuid
-from contextlib import redirect_stderr
-from io import StringIO
 from unittest import mock
 
 from celery.exceptions import SoftTimeLimitExceeded
@@ -9,6 +7,8 @@
 from django.test import TestCase, TransactionTestCase
 from swapper import load_model
 
+from openwisp_utils.tests import capture_stderr
+
 from ...config.tests.test_controller import TestRegistrationMixin
 from .. import tasks
 from ..connectors.exceptions import CommandTimeoutException
@@ -429,12 +429,13 @@ def test_launch_batch_command_timeout(self, mocked_create_commands):
         batch.refresh_from_db()
         self.assertEqual(batch.status, "failed")
 
+    @capture_stderr()
     @mock.patch(
         "openwisp_controller.connection.base.models.AbstractBatchCommand"
         ".create_commands",
         side_effect=RuntimeError("test error"),
     )
-    def test_launch_batch_command_exception(self, mocked_create_commands):
+    def test_launch_batch_command_exception(self, stderr, mocked_create_commands):
         org = self._get_org()
         device = self._create_device(organization=org)
         self._create_config(device=device)
@@ -448,12 +449,11 @@ def test_launch_batch_command_exception(self, mocked_create_commands):
             )
             batch.full_clean()
             batch.save()
-            with redirect_stderr(StringIO()) as stderr:
-                tasks.launch_batch_command(batch_id=batch.pk)
-                self.assertIn(
-                    f"An exception was raised while executing batch command {batch.pk}",
-                    stderr.getvalue(),
-                )
+            tasks.launch_batch_command(batch_id=batch.pk)
+            self.assertIn(
+                f"An exception was raised while executing batch command {batch.pk}",
+                stderr.getvalue(),
+            )
             batch.refresh_from_db()
             self.assertEqual(batch.status, "failed")
 
@@ -468,12 +468,17 @@ def test_launch_batch_command_exception(self, mocked_create_commands):
             batch.full_clean()
             batch.save()
             tasks.launch_batch_command(batch_id=batch.pk)
+            self.assertIn(
+                f"An exception was raised while executing batch command {batch.pk}",
+                stderr.getvalue(),
+            )
             batch.refresh_from_db()
             self.assertEqual(batch.status, "failed")
             self.assertNotIn(password, json.dumps(batch.input))
 
+    @capture_stderr()
     @mock.patch("openwisp_controller.connection.tasks.launch_command.delay")
-    def test_launch_batch_command_all_devices_skipped(self, mocked_delay):
+    def test_launch_batch_command_all_devices_skipped(self, stderr, mocked_delay):
         org = self._get_org()
         device = self._create_device(organization=org)
         self._create_config(device=device)
@@ -494,6 +499,7 @@ def test_launch_batch_command_all_devices_skipped(self, mocked_delay):
         self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
         self.assertEqual(batch.status, "failed")
         mocked_delay.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertIn("Skipping device", stderr.getvalue())
 
     @mock.patch("openwisp_controller.connection.tasks.launch_command.delay")
     def test_launch_batch_command_already_processed(self, mocked_delay):

From 78823a55cb82831805cca6d34cdc75d35667eac5 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 7 Sep 2026 01:01:13 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 21/27] [fix] CI and a bug in admin detail page

- Restored the stderr capture in the two command task tests which still
  used redirect_stderr after its import was removed, fixing the failing
  test suite
- Built the filters of the detail page from the organization of the batch
  instead of its command rows, so that they are rendered right after the
  execution instead of appearing only once the worker created the commands
- Hid the location and the device group filter when the batch was targeted
  on one of them
- Formatted the initial and the live timestamps through one locale aware
  path, so that a row does not change format after it is updated
---
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst                   |  7 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 63 +++++++-------
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  1 +
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  2 +
 openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py    |  3 +
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 15 +---
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  2 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |  4 +-
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                |  9 ++
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            | 85 ++++++++++++++++---
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  1 +
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         | 34 ++++++--
 .../connection/tests/test_tasks.py            | 16 ++--
 openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py       |  9 ++
 14 files changed, 175 insertions(+), 76 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index f3082598f..37be382ee 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -220,7 +220,10 @@ When the mass command itself changes, for example when it moves from
 
 The status and the timestamps are sent as they are stored, without
 translation or formatting, so that each client can render them with its
-own language and time zone.
+own language and time zone. Command rows carry ``modified_display`` as
+well, which is the same timestamp already formatted with the locale and
+the time zone of the server: the admin uses it so that a row updated over
+the websocket reads exactly like the rows rendered with the page.
 
 When the command of one device changes:
 
@@ -237,6 +240,8 @@ When the command of one device changes:
         "output": "<string>",            // Output collected so far
         "created": "<string>",           // ISO 8601 timestamp
         "modified": "<string>",          // ISO 8601 timestamp
+        "modified_display": "<string>",  // Modified, formatted by the server with its
+                                         // own locale and time zone
         "index": <integer>,              // Position of the row, sent only for new commands
         "affected_devices": <integer>,   // Commands created so far, sent with "index"
         "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices, sent with "index"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index a39c4c9ac..4de779ba7 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
 from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
-from django.db.models import Count, Q
+from django.db.models import Count
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, HttpResponseNotAllowed, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 from .commands import ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
+from .utils import format_modified
 from .widgets import (
     BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
     CommandSchemaWidget,
@@ -895,52 +896,52 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
 
         filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
-        batch_devices = Device.objects.filter(
-            Q(command__batch_command=obj) | Q(pk__in=obj.skipped_device_ids)
-        )
+        locations = Location.objects.all()
+        groups = DeviceGroup.objects.all()
+        if obj.organization_id:
+            locations = locations.filter(organization_id=obj.organization_id)
+            groups = groups.filter(organization_id=obj.organization_id)
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
-            batch_devices = batch_devices.filter(
+            locations = locations.filter(
+                organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
+            groups = groups.filter(
                 organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
             )
 
         # Location filter
-        location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
-            _("location"),
-            "location_id",
-            current_location or "",
-            batch_devices.exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
-            .values_list(
-                "devicelocation__location__id",
-                "devicelocation__location__name",
+        location_spec = None
+        if not obj.location_id:
+            location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+                _("location"),
+                "location_id",
+                current_location or "",
+                locations.values_list("id", "name"),
+                _make_choice,
             )
-            .distinct(),
-            _make_choice,
-        )
         if location_spec:
             filter_specs.append(location_spec)
 
         # Group filter
-        group_spec = self._build_related_filter(
-            _("device group"),
-            "group_id",
-            current_group or "",
-            batch_devices.filter(group__isnull=False)
-            .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
-            .distinct(),
-            _make_choice,
-        )
+        group_spec = None
+        if not obj.group_id:
+            group_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+                _("device group"),
+                "group_id",
+                current_group or "",
+                groups.values_list("id", "name"),
+                _make_choice,
+            )
         if group_spec:
             filter_specs.append(group_spec)
 
-        # Organization filter (superusers only)
-        if request.user.is_superuser:
+        # Organization filter (system wide batches only, superusers only)
+        if request.user.is_superuser and not obj.organization_id:
             org_spec = self._build_related_filter(
                 _("organization"),
                 "organization_id",
                 current_org or "",
-                batch_devices.values_list(
-                    "organization__id", "organization__name"
-                ).distinct(),
+                Organization.objects.values_list("id", "name"),
                 _make_choice,
             )
             if org_spec:
@@ -967,7 +968,7 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
             "output": command.output_preview,
-            "modified": command.modified,
+            "modified_display": format_modified(command.modified),
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 8d5258f76..fa4b4f78f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -855,6 +855,7 @@ def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
             "status_display": gettext("skipped"),
             "output": skipped["error"],
             "modified": None,
+            "modified_display": "",
             "is_skipped": True,
         }
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 9a2e0e236..1d404fe8b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
 from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, CommandSerializer
+from ..utils import format_modified
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -126,6 +127,7 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
             row.pop("input", None)
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["output"] = command.output_preview
+            row["modified_display"] = format_modified(command.modified)
             commands.append(row)
         commands += batch.get_skipped_rows(
             max(0, start - commands_count),
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
index e05491e73..a67f9e073 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
@@ -7,6 +7,8 @@
 from django.dispatch import receiver
 from swapper import load_model
 
+from .utils import format_modified
+
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
@@ -44,6 +46,7 @@ def command_save_handler(sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data.pop("input", None)
         batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
         batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
+        batch_data["modified_display"] = format_modified(instance.modified)
         batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
         if created:
             batch = instance.batch_command
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index f591d0059..a2e3d3ffe 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -94,17 +94,6 @@ function getStatusLabel(status) {
   return labels[status] || status;
 }
 
-function getFormattedDateTimeString(dateTimeString) {
-  if (!dateTimeString) {
-    return "-";
-  }
-  const formattedString = new Date(dateTimeString).strftime("%B %d, %Y %I:%M %p"),
-    stringArray = formattedString.split(" ");
-  stringArray[0] = stringArray[0].substring(0, 4) + ".";
-  stringArray[4] = stringArray[4] == "AM" ? "a.m." : "p.m.";
-  return stringArray.join(" ");
-}
-
 function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, websocket) {
   const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
   if ($status.length && data.status) {
@@ -258,7 +247,7 @@ function updateRow($, $row, data) {
     .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
     .text(getStatusLabel(data.status));
   $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
-  $row.find("td:last-child").text(getFormattedDateTimeString(data.modified));
+  $row.find("td:last-child").text(data.modified_display || "-");
 }
 
 function insertRow($, data) {
@@ -300,7 +289,7 @@ function insertRow($, data) {
       .addClass("command-output")
       .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
   );
-  $row.append($("<td>").text(getFormattedDateTimeString(data.modified)));
+  $row.append($("<td>").text(data.modified_display || "-"));
   $tableBody.append($row);
 }
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 5108d2cd5..8f86a4ceb 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <td class="command-output">
           <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
         </td>
-        <td>{{ command.modified|date:"DATETIME_FORMAT"|default:"-" }}</td>
+        <td>{{ command.modified_display|default:"-" }}</td>
       </tr>
       {% empty %}
       <tr>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 898c59ad4..089e87edb 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -85,9 +85,9 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
       <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
       <div class="readonly">
         {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
-        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong> <span id="selected-count-label">device</span>
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong>&nbsp;<span id="selected-count-label">device</span>
         {% plural %}
-        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong> <span id="selected-count-label">devices</span>
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ counter }}</strong>&nbsp;<span id="selected-count-label">devices</span>
         {% endblocktrans %}
       </div>
     </div>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index 53b42c0ca..59460e293 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 from .. import handlers
 from ..channels.consumers import BatchCommandConsumer
+from ..utils import format_modified
 from .test_models import BaseTestModels
 
 User = get_user_model()
@@ -264,6 +265,7 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
                 command_row["modified"]
                 == timezone.localtime(command.modified).isoformat()
             )
+            assert command_row["modified_display"] == format_modified(command.modified)
             assert "input" not in command_row
             await communicator.send_json_to(
                 {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 2}
@@ -309,7 +311,14 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
                     {"type": "request_current_state", "page": page}
                 )
                 response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                assert response["page"] == 1
                 assert response["commands"] == page1["commands"]
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 99}
+            )
+            clamped = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert clamped["page"] == 2
+            assert clamped["commands"] == page2["commands"]
         await communicator.disconnect()
         communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
         assert connected is True
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index 34ec4bd9d..770be6be3 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@
 from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin, BatchCommandExecutionForm
 from ..connectors.ssh import Ssh
 from ..filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
+from ..utils import format_modified
 from ..widgets import CredentialsSchemaWidget
 from .utils import BatchCommandMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin
 
@@ -969,6 +970,28 @@ def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
                 self.assertEqual(rows[0]["output"], "… last")
                 self.assertEqual(rows[0]["status_display"], "in progress")
                 self.assertFalse(rows[0]["is_skipped"])
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    rows[0]["modified_display"],
+                    format_modified(commands[0].modified),
+                )
+
+            with self.subTest("the rows follow the locale and the time zone"):
+                default = self.client.get(url).context["commands"][0]
+                with override_settings(
+                    LANGUAGE_CODE="it", TIME_ZONE="Pacific/Auckland"
+                ):
+                    localized = self.client.get(url).context["commands"][0]
+                    self.assertEqual(
+                        localized["modified_display"],
+                        format_modified(commands[0].modified),
+                    )
+                self.assertNotEqual(
+                    localized["modified_display"], default["modified_display"]
+                )
+
+            with self.subTest("skipped devices have no timestamp"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 3}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual([row["modified_display"] for row in rows], [""] * 3)
 
             with self.subTest("the page spanning commands and skipped devices"):
                 rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
@@ -1025,7 +1048,7 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
         )
         device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
         DeviceLocation.objects.create(content_object=device, location=location)
-        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
         other_group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="skipped-group", organization=org)
         skipped_device = self._create_device(
             name="skipped-device",
@@ -1133,20 +1156,58 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
             titles = [str(spec.title) for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]]
             self.assertNotIn("organization", titles)
 
-        with self.subTest("the filters do not offer other organizations"):
-            specs = {
+        def _filter_specs(target):
+            return {
                 str(spec.title): [str(choice["display"]) for choice in spec.choices]
-                for spec in self.client.get(url).context["filter_specs"]
+                for spec in self.client.get(target).context["filter_specs"]
             }
-            self.assertNotIn(transferred_group.name, specs["device group"])
-            self.assertIn(other_group.name, specs["device group"])
-            self.assertNotIn(transferred_location.name, specs["location"])
+
+        with self.subTest("the filters do not offer other organizations"):
+            for login in (lambda: self.client.force_login(operator), self._login):
+                login()
+                specs = _filter_specs(url)
+                self.assertNotIn(transferred_group.name, specs["device group"])
+                self.assertIn(other_group.name, specs["device group"])
+                self.assertNotIn(transferred_location.name, specs["location"])
+                self.assertIn(location.name, specs["location"])
+
+        with self.subTest("the filters do not wait for the commands to be created"):
+            fresh = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+            specs = _filter_specs(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[fresh.pk])
+            )
+            self.assertIn(group.name, specs["device group"])
             self.assertIn(location.name, specs["location"])
-            self._login()
-            specs = {
-                str(spec.title): [str(choice["display"]) for choice in spec.choices]
-                for spec in self.client.get(url).context["filter_specs"]
-            }
+            self.assertNotIn("organization", specs)
+
+        with self.subTest("the target of the batch is not offered as a filter"):
+            targeted = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+            specs = _filter_specs(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[targeted.pk]
+                )
+            )
+            self.assertNotIn("device group", specs)
+            self.assertIn("location", specs)
+            targeted = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, location=location)
+            specs = _filter_specs(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[targeted.pk]
+                )
+            )
+            self.assertNotIn("location", specs)
+            self.assertIn("device group", specs)
+
+        with self.subTest("a system wide batch offers every organization"):
+            system_wide = self._create_batch_command(organization=None)
+            specs = _filter_specs(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[system_wide.pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self.assertIn(org.name, specs["organization"])
+            self.assertIn(org2.name, specs["organization"])
             self.assertIn(transferred_group.name, specs["device group"])
             self.assertIn(transferred_location.name, specs["location"])
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index 5fb74254c..4a65fc3ea 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -1078,6 +1078,7 @@ def test_batch_command_skipped_devices(self):
                     "status_display": "skipped",
                     "output": "error 0",
                     "modified": None,
+                    "modified_display": "",
                     "is_skipped": True,
                 },
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 0bfc6f536..990d421ba 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -34,6 +34,7 @@
     register_command,
     unregister_command,
 )
+from ..utils import format_modified
 from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin, SshServer, _uci_show_command_callable
 
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
@@ -451,7 +452,7 @@ def _summary(self):
         ):
             summary[row.find_element(By.TAG_NAME, "label").text] = row.find_element(
                 By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".readonly"
-            ).text
+            ).text.replace("\xa0", " ")
         return summary
 
     def test_execute_batch_command(self):
@@ -859,6 +860,25 @@ def test_batch_command_live_updates(self):
             ).text,
             "2 commands",
         )
+
+        command.refresh_from_db()
+        pushed = self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=f"#batch-command-row-{command.device_id} td:last-child",
+        ).text
+        self.assertEqual(pushed, format_modified(command.modified))
+        self.open(
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        )
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#batch-command-row-{command.device_id} td:last-child",
+            ).text,
+            pushed,
+        )
         self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
 
     def test_batch_command_reconnect_on_a_filtered_page(self):
@@ -1325,14 +1345,12 @@ def filter_by_autocomplete(param_name, option):
             )
             self._filter_by("location", location1.name)
             self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
-            self.open(
-                reverse(
-                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
-                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
-                )
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.web_driver.find_elements(
+                    By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".ow-filter.organization"
+                ),
+                [],
             )
-            self._filter_by("organization", org1.name)
-            self.assertEqual(len(self._command_device_names()), 20)
 
         with self.subTest("the operator only sees the managed organization"):
             operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org1])
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
index e450dbb1e..5ec498c64 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_tasks.py
@@ -165,9 +165,10 @@ def test_launch_command_ssh_timeout(self, *args):
             "The command took longer than expected: connection timed out after 30s\n",
         )
 
+    @capture_stderr()
     @mock.patch(_mock_execute, side_effect=RuntimeError("test error"))
     @mock.patch(_mock_connect, return_value=True)
-    def test_launch_command_exception(self, *args):
+    def test_launch_command_exception(self, stderr, *args):
         dc = self._create_device_connection()
         command = Command(
             device=dc.device,
@@ -178,15 +179,15 @@ def test_launch_command_exception(self, *args):
         command.full_clean()
         command.save()
         # must call this explicitly because lack of transactions in this test case
-        with redirect_stderr(StringIO()) as stderr:
-            tasks.launch_command.delay(command.pk)
-            expected = f"An exception was raised while executing command {command.pk}"
-            self.assertIn(expected, stderr.getvalue())
+        tasks.launch_command.delay(command.pk)
+        expected = f"An exception was raised while executing command {command.pk}"
+        self.assertIn(expected, stderr.getvalue())
         command.refresh_from_db()
         self.assertEqual(command.status, "failed")
         self.assertEqual(command.output, "Internal system error: test error\n")
 
-    def test_launch_command_failure_cleans_change_password_input(self):
+    @capture_stderr()
+    def test_launch_command_failure_cleans_change_password_input(self, stderr):
         dc = self._create_device_connection()
         password = "SuperSecret123"
         errors = (
@@ -205,8 +206,7 @@ def test_launch_command_failure_cleans_change_password_input(self):
                 command.full_clean()
                 command.save()
                 with mock.patch.object(Command, "execute", side_effect=error):
-                    with redirect_stderr(StringIO()):
-                        tasks.launch_command(command.pk)
+                    tasks.launch_command(command.pk)
                 command.refresh_from_db()
                 self.assertNotIn(password, json.dumps(command.input))
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
index 905afa7a8..1d13cff67 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
@@ -1,6 +1,15 @@
+from django.utils import formats, timezone
 from openwisp_notifications.utils import _get_object_link
 
 
+def format_modified(value):
+    if not value:
+        return ""
+    if timezone.is_aware(value):
+        value = timezone.localtime(value)
+    return formats.date_format(value, "DATETIME_FORMAT")
+
+
 def get_connection_working_notification_target_url(obj, field, absolute_url=True):
     url = _get_object_link(obj._related_object(field), absolute_url)
     return f"{url}#deviceconnection_set-group"

From 72f299ca2709bfc6336469c8eef8501bfad919b9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 13 Sep 2026 04:18:17 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 22/27] [fix] Address comments

---
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst                   |   4 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 134 ++++++++++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  47 +++++-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |   4 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py     |  18 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py    |  27 ++--
 .../static/connection/css/command-inline.css  |   3 +
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |  28 ++--
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |  30 ++--
 .../connection/batch_command/form_row.html    |  10 ++
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                |   6 +-
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            |  95 ++++++++-----
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  56 +++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         |  77 +++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py       |   2 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py     |   9 +-
 16 files changed, 407 insertions(+), 143 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index 37be382ee..b53a78037 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -237,7 +237,9 @@ When the command of one device changes:
         "connection": "<uuid>",          // Device connection used, may be null
         "batch_command": "<uuid>",       // Mass command this command belongs to
         "status": "<string>",            // "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
-        "output": "<string>",            // Output collected so far
+        "output": "<string>",            // Output preview: the last line of the
+                                         // output, at most its last 100
+                                         // characters, as in "batch_state"
         "created": "<string>",           // ISO 8601 timestamp
         "modified": "<string>",          // ISO 8601 timestamp
         "modified_display": "<string>",  // Modified, formatted by the server with its
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 4de779ba7..b2df66a4e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
 from .commands import ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
-from .utils import format_modified
+from .utils import format_localized_datetime
 from .widgets import (
     BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
     CommandSchemaWidget,
@@ -100,6 +100,9 @@ def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
         super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
         self.request = request
         if request is None or request.user.is_superuser:
+            # without a request there is no user to restrict the fields to,
+            # while superusers are allowed to use every organization, group,
+            # location and command type, so both keep the fields as they are
             return
         organization_ids = request.user.organizations_managed
         self.fields["organization"].queryset = self.fields[
@@ -114,6 +117,10 @@ def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
             allowed_commands.update(
                 dict(Command.get_org_allowed_commands(organization_id=organization_id))
             )
+        # unlike the fields above, "type" is not a queryset but a static
+        # list of choices, so replacing it drops the "Select an option"
+        # placeholder: without it a command type select button is preselected with
+        # first available command type
         empty_choices = [
             choice for choice in self.fields["type"].choices if not choice[0]
         ]
@@ -135,20 +142,24 @@ def clean(self):
                     " or location."
                 )
             )
-        # "organizations_managed" is a list of organization UUIDs as strings
-        organization_ids = self.request.user.organizations_managed
-        related_organizations = (
-            ("organization", organization.pk if organization else None),
-            ("group", group.organization_id if group else None),
-            ("location", location.organization_id if location else None),
-        )
-        for field_name, organization_id in related_organizations:
-            if organization_id is None:
-                continue
-            if str(organization_id) not in organization_ids:
-                self.add_error(field_name, _("Select a valid choice."))
         return cleaned_data
 
+    def fieldsets(self):
+        """Returns the sections of the first step with their bound fields.
+
+        The page is not an admin change form, so Django does not group the
+        fields: the sections are listed here, in the order they are shown,
+        and the template renders each field with the admin markup.
+        """
+        sections = (
+            (_("Command"), ("type", "input", "label", "notes")),
+            (_("Targets"), ("organization", "location", "group")),
+        )
+        return [
+            (title, [self[field_name] for field_name in field_names])
+            for title, field_names in sections
+        ]
+
     def to_session(self):
         """Returns the cleaned values as JSON serializable primitives.
 
@@ -251,6 +262,7 @@ class CommandInline(admin.StackedInline):
         "type",
         "input_data",
         "output_data",
+        "batch_command",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
@@ -259,6 +271,7 @@ class CommandInline(admin.StackedInline):
         "type",
         "input_data",
         "output_data",
+        "batch_command",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
@@ -277,7 +290,7 @@ def get_queryset(self, request, select_related=True):
                 device_id=resolved.kwargs["object_id"], created__gte=seven_days
             ).order_by("-created")
         if select_related:
-            qs = qs.select_related()
+            qs = qs.select_related().prefetch_related("batch_command")
         return qs
 
     def input_data(self, obj):
@@ -374,7 +387,6 @@ class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
     search_fields = []
     actions = None
     list_per_page = 20
-    ordering = ["name"]
     change_list_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
     import_export_change_list_template = None
 
@@ -390,6 +402,11 @@ def get_queryset(self, request):
 
     @admin.display(description="")
     def select_device(self, obj):
+        # the checkbox has no "name" because it is never submitted: it sits
+        # in the changelist form, not the execute form, and only exists for
+        # the current page, so the JS stores the unchecked devices in the
+        # browser's sessionStorage to keep them across pages, and submits
+        # them in the hidden "excluded" field instead
         return format_html(
             '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}"'
             ' aria-label="{}" checked>',
@@ -401,6 +418,9 @@ def select_device(self, obj):
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
     confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
+    change_form_template = (
+        "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
+    )
     session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
     list_display = [
         "label",
@@ -427,9 +447,6 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "location__name",
         "group__name",
     ]
-    change_form_template = (
-        "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
-    )
     device_commands_per_page = 20
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
@@ -530,6 +547,10 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
         if request.method == "POST":
             form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request.POST, request=request)
             if form.is_valid():
+                # the POST on the confirm page requires the data of this step,
+                # hidden inputs cannot carry it because changing the page of
+                # the paginated device table refreshes the page and loses it,
+                # so it is stored in the session
                 request.session[self.session_key] = form.to_session()
                 return redirect(
                     f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
@@ -541,7 +562,8 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
                     initial=self._wizard_initial(wizard), request=request
                 )
             else:
-                request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
+                # the wizard is left in the session: another tab may be
+                # reviewing it, and opening this page must not discard it
                 form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
@@ -608,20 +630,20 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
             "admin/change_list.html"
         )
 
-    def _restart(self, request):
+    def _restart(self, request, message=None):
         """Sends the user back to step one when there is no wizard to show."""
         self.message_user(
             request,
-            _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue."),
+            message or _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue."),
             messages.WARNING,
         )
         return redirect(f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_execute")
 
     def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
-        """Devices matched by the organization, group and location chosen.
-        The targeting rule lives on the model so this page and the execution
-        cannot drift apart; the multitenancy scope and the ordering the
-        pagination needs are admin concerns, applied on top.
+        """Devices picked one by one, or matched by the organization, group
+        and location chosen. The targeting rule lives on the model so this
+        page and the execution cannot drift apart; the multitenancy scope is
+        an admin concern, applied on top.
         """
         try:
             devices = BatchCommand.dry_run(
@@ -643,7 +665,7 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
             devices = devices.filter(
                 organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
             )
-        return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
+        return devices.distinct()
 
     def _devices_digest(self, device_ids):
         """Identifies the set of devices a confirm page was rendered with,
@@ -693,14 +715,35 @@ def _describe_input(self, command_input):
         )
 
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
-        """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
-        Only the wizard the confirm page was rendered with is executed, and
-        it is removed before the batch is created, so a double submit finds
-        nothing and restarts.
+        """Runs the mass command shown on the confirm page.
+
+        The wizard is deleted from the session before the command is
+        created, so it can only run once:
+
+        - no wizard in the session, because it expired or already ran:
+          go back to the first step
+        - the token does not match, because another tab replaced it:
+          go back to the first step and say why
+        - the devices changed since the page was opened: keep the wizard
+          and ask the user to review them again
+        - the organization, group or location was deleted: log it and go
+          back to the first step
+        - the command is invalid: keep the wizard and show the error
+        - otherwise: run it on the reviewed devices, minus the unchecked
+          ones, and open the new mass command
         """
         wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
-        if not wizard or request.POST.get("token") != wizard.get("token"):
+        if not wizard:
             return self._restart(request)
+        if request.POST.get("token") != wizard.get("token"):
+            return self._restart(
+                request,
+                _(
+                    "This mass command was replaced by another one started in a"
+                    " different browser tab, so it was not executed. Please fill"
+                    " in the details again."
+                ),
+            )
         del request.session[self.session_key]
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
         device_ids = list(devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
@@ -869,8 +912,17 @@ def _build_filter_specs(
         current_group=None,
         current_org=None,
     ):
+        """Builds the filters of the command table.
+
+        The table is not a changelist, so Django does not build its filters:
+        each one is a title and a list of choices, and every choice carries
+        the query string which applies it. Filters which cannot narrow the
+        table are left out.
+        """
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
+        # the filtered table is shorter, so the page being viewed may not
+        # exist in it: every choice starts again from the first page
         params.pop("page", None)
 
         def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
@@ -886,6 +938,8 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
                 "query_string": query_string,
             }
 
+        # the statuses a command can have, plus "skipped" for the devices
+        # no command was created for and "All" to clear the filter
         status_choices = []
         for status_value, display_name in (
             (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("skipped")),)
@@ -893,9 +947,9 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             status_choices.append(
                 _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
             )
-
         filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
-
+        # the locations and groups offered are those of the organization of
+        # the mass command, and only those the user is allowed to see
         locations = Location.objects.all()
         groups = DeviceGroup.objects.all()
         if obj.organization_id:
@@ -908,8 +962,8 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             groups = groups.filter(
                 organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
             )
-
-        # Location filter
+        # a mass command sent to a single location: every row already has
+        # that location, so the filter is not created
         location_spec = None
         if not obj.location_id:
             location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
@@ -921,8 +975,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             )
         if location_spec:
             filter_specs.append(location_spec)
-
-        # Group filter
+        # the same when the mass command was sent to a single device group
         group_spec = None
         if not obj.group_id:
             group_spec = self._build_related_filter(
@@ -934,8 +987,8 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             )
         if group_spec:
             filter_specs.append(group_spec)
-
-        # Organization filter (system wide batches only, superusers only)
+        # devices of different organizations only meet in a mass command
+        # which is system wide, and those are triggered by superusers only
         if request.user.is_superuser and not obj.organization_id:
             org_spec = self._build_related_filter(
                 _("organization"),
@@ -946,7 +999,6 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             )
             if org_spec:
                 filter_specs.append(org_spec)
-
         return filter_specs
 
     def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choice):
@@ -968,7 +1020,7 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
             "output": command.output_preview,
-            "modified_display": format_modified(command.modified),
+            "modified_display": format_localized_datetime(command.modified),
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index fa4b4f78f..dfc01bbff 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -621,9 +621,14 @@ def execute(self):
             self.status = "failed"
             self._add_output(
                 gettext(
-                    "The device no longer belongs to the organization of this"
-                    " mass command."
+                    'The device was moved out of "%(organization)s", the'
+                    ' organization of the mass command "%(label)s", so the'
+                    " command was not run."
                 )
+                % {
+                    "organization": self.batch_command.organization,
+                    "label": self.batch_command.label,
+                }
             )
             logger.warning(
                 "Not executing command %s of batch %s: device %s belongs to"
@@ -878,6 +883,14 @@ def normalize_filters(filters):
         return filters
 
     def filter_skipped_items(self, filters):
+        """Applies the filters of the command table to the skipped devices.
+
+        Unlike the other rows of the table, a skipped device has no Command
+        object, so it has no status which the database can filter: it only
+        exists in the "skipped_devices" JSON of the mass command. The table
+        filters, including the "skipped" status choice, therefore look up the
+        skipped devices in that JSON instead of querying the Command model.
+        """
         related = (
             filters["organization_id"],
             filters["group_id"],
@@ -946,6 +959,28 @@ def get_skipped_preview(self, limit=10):
             self.build_skipped_row(last_pk, skipped[last_pk])
         ]
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def get_command_row_position(command):
+        """Returns where a new command appears in the table of its mass
+        command, and the totals the table shows once it is added.
+
+        Commands are listed in the order they were created, followed by
+        the skipped devices, so the position of a new command is the number
+        of commands created before it. The loop which creates the commands
+        passes that number in "_batch_index", so they are not counted again
+        for every command; otherwise they are counted here.
+        """
+        batch = command.batch_command
+        index = getattr(command, "_batch_index", None)
+        if index is None:
+            index = batch.affected_devices - 1
+        affected_devices = index + 1
+        return {
+            "index": index,
+            "affected_devices": affected_devices,
+            "total_rows": affected_devices + batch.skipped_count,
+        }
+
     @property
     def affected_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count()
@@ -1103,9 +1138,11 @@ def _skip_transferred_devices(self):
             self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
                 "name": device.name,
                 "error": gettext(
-                    "The device no longer belongs to the organization of this"
-                    " mass command"
-                ),
+                    'The device was moved out of "%(organization)s", the'
+                    ' organization of the mass command "%(label)s", so the'
+                    " command was not run."
+                )
+                % {"organization": self.organization, "label": self.label},
             }
             logger.warning(
                 "Skipping device %s for batch %s: transferred to another"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 1d404fe8b..cf9f8069e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
 from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, CommandSerializer
-from ..utils import format_modified
+from ..utils import format_localized_datetime
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
             row.pop("input", None)
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["output"] = command.output_preview
-            row["modified_display"] = format_modified(command.modified)
+            row["modified_display"] = format_localized_datetime(command.modified)
             commands.append(row)
         commands += batch.get_skipped_rows(
             max(0, start - commands_count),
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
index 7d03b9be0..b5c66355a 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@
 
 from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter
 
+from .commands import get_command_choices
+
 
 class GroupFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
     field_name = "group"
@@ -22,13 +24,15 @@ class TypeFilter(admin.SimpleListFilter):
     parameter_name = "type"
 
     def lookups(self, request, model_admin):
-        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
-        qs = BatchCommand.objects.all()
-        if not request.user.is_superuser:
-            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
-        types = qs.values_list("type", flat=True).distinct()
-        choices = dict(BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices)
-        return [(t, choices.get(t, t)) for t in types]
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            return list(get_command_choices())
+        Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+        allowed = {}
+        for organization_id in request.user.organizations_managed:
+            allowed.update(
+                Command.get_org_allowed_commands(organization_id=organization_id)
+            )
+        return list(allowed.items())
 
     def queryset(self, request, queryset):
         if self.value():
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
index a67f9e073..193c17eb5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 from django.dispatch import receiver
 from swapper import load_model
 
-from .utils import format_modified
+from .utils import format_localized_datetime
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
-def send_update(group, event):
+def send_websocket_event(group, event):
     def send():
         try:
             async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(group, event)
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ def send():
     transaction.on_commit(send)
 
 
-def send_batch_update(group, data):
-    send_update(group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data})
+def send_batch_command_websocket_event(group, data):
+    send_websocket_event(group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data})
 
 
 @receiver(post_save, sender=Command, dispatch_uid="command_save_handler")
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ def command_save_handler(sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         return
     serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
     if not created:
-        send_update(
+        send_websocket_event(
             f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
             {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
         )
@@ -46,18 +46,13 @@ def command_save_handler(sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data.pop("input", None)
         batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
         batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
-        batch_data["modified_display"] = format_modified(instance.modified)
+        batch_data["modified_display"] = format_localized_datetime(instance.modified)
         batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
         if created:
-            batch = instance.batch_command
-            index = getattr(instance, "_batch_index", None)
-            if index is None:
-                index = batch.affected_devices - 1
-            affected_devices = index + 1
-            batch_data["index"] = index
-            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + batch.skipped_count
-        send_batch_update(
+            # a new command: the page adds its row live, so it needs the
+            # position of the row and the new totals
+            batch_data.update(BatchCommand.get_command_row_position(instance))
+        send_batch_command_websocket_event(
             f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}", batch_data
         )
 
@@ -75,4 +70,4 @@ def batch_command_save_handler(sender, instance, **kwargs):
     batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
     batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
     batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
-    send_batch_update(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
+    send_batch_command_websocket_event(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
index 0da80c341..c44eda750 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
@@ -25,6 +25,9 @@ li.commands:not(.recent) {
   line-height: 1.5em;
   white-space: pre;
 }
+#command_set-2-group .form-row.field-batch_command:not(:has(a)) {
+  display: none;
+}
 .object-updated {
   transition: background-color 3s ease;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 089e87edb..57e27225d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 {% extends device_changelist_template|default:"admin/change_list.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{# step two: extends the changelist template of the registered Device admin, #}
-{# so the assets of columns added by other modules load too #}
-{# see BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template() #}
+{% comment %}
+step two: extends the changelist template of the registered Device admin,
+so the assets of columns added by other modules load too
+see BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template()
+{% endcomment %}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
@@ -11,12 +13,6 @@
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block extrahead %}
-{{ block.super }}
-<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
-<script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}" defer></script>
-{% endblock %}
-
 {% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-command{% endblock %}
 
 {# hides the changelist's "Add device" button #}
@@ -104,9 +100,11 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
 </fieldset>
 
-{# renders the changelist: the device table, its pagination, and the <form> wrapping both #}
-{# HTML does not allow nested forms, so the execute form below is a sibling of that one: #}
-{# nesting it made the browser drop the opening tag, leaving the button outside any form #}
+{% comment %}
+renders the changelist: the device table, its pagination, and the <form> wrapping both
+HTML does not allow nested forms, so the execute form below is a sibling of that one:
+nesting it made the browser drop the opening tag, leaving the button outside any form
+{% endcomment %}
 {{ block.super }}
 
 <form method="post" id="execute-form" class="execute-form"
@@ -127,3 +125,9 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
   </div>
 </form>
 {% endblock %}
+
+{% block footer %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}"></script>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 3dae5f60d..63ecc78af 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
 {% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{# step one: collects the command details and targets, saves them in the session, #}
-{# then redirects to the confirm page #}
+{% comment %}
+step one: collects the command details and targets, saves them in the session,
+then redirects to the confirm page
+{% endcomment %}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
@@ -56,20 +58,20 @@
     <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors|join:" " }}</p>
     {% endif %}
 
+    {% comment %}
+    this is not an admin change form, so there are no admin fieldsets to render:
+    the sections and the order of their fields come from
+    BatchCommandExecutionForm.fieldsets(), and form_row.html gives each field
+    the markup of the admin, so the page is styled like any other admin form
+    {% endcomment %}
+    {% for title, fields in form.fieldsets %}
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
-      <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.type %}
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.input %}
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.label %}
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.notes %}
-    </fieldset>
-
-    <fieldset class="module aligned">
-      <h2>{% trans "Targets" %}</h2>
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.organization %}
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.location %}
-      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.group %}
+      <h2>{{ title }}</h2>
+      {% for field in fields %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" %}
+      {% endfor %}
     </fieldset>
+    {% endfor %}
 
     <div class="submit-row">
       <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans "Cancel" %}</a>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
index bec22c341..56f121803 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
@@ -1,3 +1,13 @@
+{% comment %}
+renders one field of the wizard with the markup of the Django admin, so that
+the admin styles, the errors and the help text look like they do on any other
+admin form: the wizard uses a plain form instead of an admin fieldset, so
+"admin/includes/fieldset.html" cannot be used.
+
+adapted from that template, keeping only what one field needs: the loop over
+the fieldset and its lines, the rows holding several fields, the checkbox and
+the read only rendering are left out.
+{% endcomment %}
 <div class="form-row field-{{ field.name }}{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
   {{ field.errors }}
   <div class="flex-container">
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index 59460e293..e85d77056 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 
 from .. import handlers
 from ..channels.consumers import BatchCommandConsumer
-from ..utils import format_modified
+from ..utils import format_localized_datetime
 from .test_models import BaseTestModels
 
 User = get_user_model()
@@ -265,7 +265,9 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
                 command_row["modified"]
                 == timezone.localtime(command.modified).isoformat()
             )
-            assert command_row["modified_display"] == format_modified(command.modified)
+            assert command_row["modified_display"] == format_localized_datetime(
+                command.modified
+            )
             assert "input" not in command_row
             await communicator.send_json_to(
                 {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 2}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index 770be6be3..f8c5beaae 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -15,16 +15,17 @@
     COMMANDS,
     ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
     ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+    get_command_choices,
 )
 
 from ... import settings as module_settings
 from ...config.admin import DeviceAdmin
 from ...tests import _get_updated_templates_settings
 from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
-from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin, BatchCommandExecutionForm
+from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin
 from ..connectors.ssh import Ssh
 from ..filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
-from ..utils import format_modified
+from ..utils import format_localized_datetime
 from ..widgets import CredentialsSchemaWidget
 from .utils import BatchCommandMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin
 
@@ -171,6 +172,34 @@ def test_command_inline(self):
             response = self.client.get(url)
             self.assertContains(response, "Recent Commands")
 
+    def test_command_inline_batch_command(self):
+        url = reverse(
+            f"admin:{self.config_app_label}_device_change", args=(self.device.id,)
+        )
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(
+            self.device.organization, label="nightly reboot"
+        )
+        batch_url = reverse(
+            f"admin:{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+            args=(batch.pk,),
+        )
+        with self.subTest("a command of a mass command links to it"):
+            Command.objects.create(
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo hello"},
+                device=self.device,
+                batch_command=batch,
+            )
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            self.assertContains(
+                response, f'<a href="{batch_url}">nightly reboot</a>', html=True
+            )
+        Command.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("a command sent to the device alone has no link"):
+            self._create_custom_command()
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            self.assertNotContains(response, batch_url)
+
     def test_command_inline_output_loading_overlay(self):
         url = reverse(
             f"admin:{self.config_app_label}_device_change", args=(self.device.id,)
@@ -504,29 +533,6 @@ def test_wizard_schema_view(self):
             self.client.force_login(viewer)
             self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 403)
 
-    def test_wizard_organization_guard_survives_a_wider_queryset(self):
-        org = self._get_org()
-        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
-        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
-        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
-        self.client.force_login(operator)
-        request = self.client.get(self.execute_url).wsgi_request
-        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(
-            data={
-                "type": "custom",
-                "input": '{"command": "echo test"}',
-                "label": "test-label",
-                "notes": "",
-                "organization": "",
-                "group": str(group2.pk),
-                "location": "",
-            },
-            request=request,
-        )
-        form.fields["group"].queryset = DeviceGroup.objects.all()
-        self.assertFalse(form.is_valid())
-        self.assertEqual(form.errors["group"], ["Select a valid choice."])
-
     def test_wizard_views_reject_unsupported_methods(self):
         self._login()
         response = self.client.delete(self.execute_url)
@@ -560,7 +566,7 @@ def test_wizard_back_restores_the_form(self):
         self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
         form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
         self.assertEqual(form.initial, {})
-        self.assertNotIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+        self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
 
     def test_wizard_device_admin_composition(self):
         class ReplacementDeviceAdmin(DeviceAdmin):
@@ -740,7 +746,12 @@ def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
             self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
             response = self._post_confirm("stale-token")
             self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
-            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+            self.assertIn(
+                "This mass command was replaced by another one started in a"
+                " different browser tab, so it was not executed. Please fill"
+                " in the details again.",
+                self._messages(response),
+            )
             self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
 
         with self.subTest("double submit"):
@@ -771,6 +782,22 @@ def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
             self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
             self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
 
+    def test_wizard_survives_a_second_tab(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+        self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+        # another tab opens the first step, which must not discard the wizard
+        self.client.get(self.execute_url)
+        self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+        response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+        self.assertRedirects(
+            response,
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=(batch.pk,)),
+        )
+
     def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)]
@@ -972,7 +999,7 @@ def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
                 self.assertFalse(rows[0]["is_skipped"])
                 self.assertEqual(
                     rows[0]["modified_display"],
-                    format_modified(commands[0].modified),
+                    format_localized_datetime(commands[0].modified),
                 )
 
             with self.subTest("the rows follow the locale and the time zone"):
@@ -983,7 +1010,7 @@ def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
                     localized = self.client.get(url).context["commands"][0]
                     self.assertEqual(
                         localized["modified_display"],
-                        format_modified(commands[0].modified),
+                        format_localized_datetime(commands[0].modified),
                     )
                 self.assertNotEqual(
                     localized["modified_display"], default["modified_display"]
@@ -1079,7 +1106,7 @@ def test_change_view_filters(self):
             },
             str(transferred_device.pk): {
                 "name": transferred_device.name,
-                "error": "no longer belongs to the organization",
+                "error": "moved out of the organization of the mass command",
             },
         }
         batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
@@ -1306,15 +1333,17 @@ def test_changelist_filter_classes(self):
             type_filter = TypeFilter(request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
             self.assertEqual(
                 type_filter.lookups(request, model_admin),
-                [("custom", "Custom commands")],
+                list(Command.get_org_allowed_commands(organization_id=org.pk)),
             )
 
         with self.subTest("type lookups list every type for superusers"):
             self._login()
             admin_request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
             type_filter = TypeFilter(admin_request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
-            lookups = dict(type_filter.lookups(admin_request, model_admin))
-            self.assertEqual(set(lookups), {"custom", "reboot"})
+            self.assertEqual(
+                type_filter.lookups(admin_request, model_admin),
+                list(get_command_choices()),
+            )
 
         with self.subTest("type queryset"):
             response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"type": "reboot"})
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index 4a65fc3ea..8c50e266e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -1056,6 +1056,41 @@ def test_batch_command_total_devices_successful_failed(self):
             batch.batch_commands.filter(status="failed", device=device1).exists()
         )
 
+    def test_batch_command_row_position(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        dc = self._create_device_connection()
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": "failed"}
+            for index in range(2)
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            commands = [
+                Command.objects.create(
+                    batch_command=batch,
+                    device=dc.device,
+                    connection=dc,
+                    type=batch.type,
+                    input={"command": "echo test"},
+                )
+                for _ in range(2)
+            ]
+
+        with self.subTest("the commands are counted without a position"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                BatchCommand.get_command_row_position(commands[1]),
+                {"index": 1, "affected_devices": 2, "total_rows": 4},
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the position passed by the loop is not counted again"):
+            commands[0]._batch_index = 5
+            with self.assertNumQueries(0):
+                position = BatchCommand.get_command_row_position(commands[0])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                position, {"index": 5, "affected_devices": 6, "total_rows": 8}
+            )
+
     def test_batch_command_skipped_devices(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
@@ -1351,9 +1386,11 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                 self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
                 batch.refresh_from_db()
                 self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
-                self.assertIn(
-                    "no longer belongs to the organization",
+                self.assertEqual(
                     batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
+                    f'The device was moved out of "{org.name}", the organization'
+                    f' of the mass command "{batch.label}", so the command was'
+                    " not run.",
                 )
                 db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
                 self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_devices, db_batch.skipped_devices)
@@ -2040,7 +2077,9 @@ def test_batch_command_status_is_written_once(self):
         modified = batch.modified
 
         with mock.patch.object(BatchCommand, "save") as save:
-            with mock.patch.object(handlers, "send_batch_update") as publish:
+            with mock.patch.object(
+                handlers, "send_batch_command_websocket_event"
+            ) as publish:
                 batch.calculate_and_update_status()
         save.assert_not_called()
         publish.assert_called_once()
@@ -2070,9 +2109,10 @@ def test_batch_command_device_transferred_to_another_org(self):
             batch.refresh_from_db()
             self.assertIn("Skipping device", logs.output[0])
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
-            self.assertIn(
-                "no longer belongs to the organization",
+            self.assertEqual(
                 batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
+                f'The device was moved out of "{org.name}", the organization of'
+                f' the mass command "{batch.label}", so the command was not run.',
             )
             self.assertFalse(batch.batch_commands.exists())
 
@@ -2100,7 +2140,11 @@ def test_batch_command_device_transferred_to_another_org(self):
             self.assertIn(str(org2.pk), logs.output[0])
             command.refresh_from_db()
             self.assertEqual(command.status, "failed")
-            self.assertIn("no longer belongs to the organization", command.output)
+            self.assertIn(
+                f'The device was moved out of "{org.name}", the organization of'
+                f' the mass command "{batch.label}", so the command was not run.',
+                command.output,
+            )
 
     def test_batch_command_permissions(self):
         ct = ContentType.objects.get_by_natural_key(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 990d421ba..4818f290d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
     register_command,
     unregister_command,
 )
-from ..utils import format_modified
+from ..utils import format_localized_datetime
 from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin, SshServer, _uci_show_command_callable
 
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
@@ -866,7 +866,7 @@ def test_batch_command_live_updates(self):
             by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
             value=f"#batch-command-row-{command.device_id} td:last-child",
         ).text
-        self.assertEqual(pushed, format_modified(command.modified))
+        self.assertEqual(pushed, format_localized_datetime(command.modified))
         self.open(
             reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
         )
@@ -1386,6 +1386,79 @@ def filter_by_autocomplete(param_name, option):
             self.assertIn("By status", filter_titles)
             self.assertNotIn("By organization", filter_titles)
 
+    def test_recent_commands_show_the_mass_command(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = self._create_devices(org, 2)
+        skipped_device = self._create_device(
+            name="device-skipped",
+            organization=org,
+            mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:99",
+        )
+        self.login()
+        self._fill_wizard(
+            type="Custom commands",
+            label="recent-commands",
+            organization=org,
+            command_input={"command": "echo test"},
+        )
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+        self._wait_for_review_page()
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 30).until(
+            lambda driver: BatchCommand.objects.filter(label="recent-commands").exists()
+        )
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label="recent-commands")
+        batch_url = reverse(
+            f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]
+        )
+        self._wait_for_url(batch_url, timeout=30)
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 10).until(
+            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == ["failed", "failed", "skipped"],
+            message=f"got {self._command_statuses()}",
+        )
+
+        with self.subTest("the device of a skipped row is not a link"):
+            row = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f"#batch-command-row-{skipped_device.pk}"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(row.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "a.device-link"), [])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".device-name-disabled").text,
+                skipped_device.name,
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the device of a command opens its recent commands"):
+            device = devices[0]
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#batch-command-row-{device.pk} a.device-link",
+            ).click()
+            self._wait_for_url(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.config_app_label}_device_change", args=[device.pk]
+                )
+            )
+            command = Command.objects.get(device=device)
+
+            def field(name):
+                return self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                    value=f"#command_set-2-group .field-{name} .readonly",
+                ).text
+
+            self.assertEqual(field("status_display"), command.get_status_display())
+            self.assertEqual(field("type"), command.get_type_display())
+            self.assertEqual(field("input_data"), command.input_data)
+            self.assertEqual(field("output_data"), command.output.strip())
+            self.assertEqual(field("batch_command"), batch.label)
+            self.assertNotEqual(field("created"), "")
+            self.assertNotEqual(field("modified"), "")
+            link = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value="#command_set-2-group .field-batch_command .readonly a",
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(urlparse(link.get_attribute("href")).path, batch_url)
+
     def test_organization_scoped_custom_command_type(self):
         org1 = self._create_org(
             name="scoped org", slug="scoped-org", id=UUID(SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
index 1d13cff67..9be47ff6f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/utils.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 from openwisp_notifications.utils import _get_object_link
 
 
-def format_modified(value):
+def format_localized_datetime(value):
     if not value:
         return ""
     if timezone.is_aware(value):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
index cda8c62ad..56bd7302e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
@@ -54,7 +54,6 @@ class BatchCommandSchemaWidget(CommandSchemaWidget):
         f"admin:{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}"
         f"_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}_schema"
     )
-
     app_label_model = f"{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}"
     extra_attrs = {
         "data-schema-selector": "#id_type",
@@ -68,6 +67,14 @@ def media(self):
 
 
 class OrganizationScopedSelect(forms.Select):
+    """Select which marks each option with the organization it belongs to.
+
+    Used for the device group and location of the mass command wizard: every
+    option gets a "data-organization-id" attribute, so that when an
+    organization is chosen the page can hide the groups and locations of the
+    other organizations without asking the server again.
+    """
+
     def create_option(self, name, value, *args, **kwargs):
         option = super().create_option(name, value, *args, **kwargs)
         instance = getattr(value, "instance", None)

From dc767ec2c3dbaab809ef5dd71a218a4e58264f06 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 14 Sep 2026 16:52:23 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 23/27] [ci] Add 1345-mass-command-admin-workflow in ci

---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml | 2 ++
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 986237cc8..9162bcc33 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -12,6 +12,8 @@ on:
       - "1.1"
       - "1.2"
       - "gsoc26-*"
+      # Todo: Remove this after the PR is merged
+      - "feature/1345-mass-command-admin-workflow"
 
 jobs:
   build:

From d0451be68c2552851353a6ee2f6cafcb0ddea7b9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 17 Sep 2026 04:48:27 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 24/27] [fix] Scoped the command rows, guarded the wizard and
 renamed the menu

- Hid the rows of a device which was moved to another organization from the
  users which do not manage it, both in the table of the detail page and in
  the snapshot sent over the websocket, through the new "scope_commands"
- Sent the organization of the device along with every command update, so
  that the consumer forwards a row only to the users allowed to see it
- Claimed the wizard in the cache before executing it, so that two requests
  sent at the same time create one mass command instead of two
- Renamed the menu entry which opens the wizard to "Run Mass command", listed
  it before the changelist and gave the entries of the group their own icons,
  which are added to the admin theme of openwisp-utils
---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml                      |  4 ++
 docs/user/shell-commands.rst                  |  8 +--
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 30 ++++++++--
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        | 14 ++---
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py | 12 ++++
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          | 19 ++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py    |  1 +
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                | 56 +++++++++++++++++++
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            | 32 ++++++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         |  4 +-
 10 files changed, 159 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 9162bcc33..591ae3217 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -70,6 +70,10 @@ jobs:
           pip install -U -r requirements-test.txt
           pip install -U -e .
           pip install ${{ matrix.django-version }}
+          # TODO: remove once https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-utils/pull/767
+          # is merged, the icons of the mass command menu entries are defined there
+          pip install --no-deps -U \
+            https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-utils/archive/refs/heads/feature/mass-command-icons.tar.gz
 
       - name: Start redis
         if: ${{ !cancelled() && steps.deps.conclusion == 'success' }}
diff --git a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
index bc1e7262e..e2b90666a 100644
--- a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
+++ b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
@@ -197,8 +197,8 @@ organization.
 Sending a Mass Command
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
-Open *Network Operations* > *Mass command execute* from the menu. The
-first step asks for:
+Open *Network Operations* > *Run Mass command* from the menu. The first
+step asks for:
 
 - the **command type** and its inputs, which change with the type
   selected;
@@ -250,8 +250,8 @@ superusers).
 Finding Past Mass Commands
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
-*Network Operations* > *Mass command admin* lists the mass commands which
-were sent, most recent first.
+*Network Operations* > *Mass commands* lists the mass commands which were
+sent, most recent first.
 
 The list can be searched by label, notes, organization, device, location
 and group name, and filtered by organization, status, type, group and
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index b2df66a4e..2e299dce6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
+from django.core.cache import cache
 from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.db.models import Count
@@ -422,6 +423,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
     session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
+    wizard_claim_timeout = 60
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -667,6 +669,23 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
             )
         return devices.distinct()
 
+    def _claim_wizard(self, wizard):
+        """Claims a wizard for execution, returning False when it was claimed.
+
+        Two overlapping requests read the wizard from the session before
+        either of them saves its removal, so deleting it from the session
+        does not stop the second one: adding a key to the cache does, because
+        only one request can add it.
+        """
+        return cache.add(
+            f"{self.session_key}-claim:{wizard['token']}",
+            True,
+            timeout=self.wizard_claim_timeout,
+        )
+
+    def _release_wizard(self, wizard):
+        cache.delete(f"{self.session_key}-claim:{wizard['token']}")
+
     def _devices_digest(self, device_ids):
         """Identifies the set of devices a confirm page was rendered with,
         so that only the reviewed set is executed.
@@ -744,10 +763,13 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
                     " in the details again."
                 ),
             )
+        if not self._claim_wizard(wizard):
+            return self._restart(request)
         del request.session[self.session_key]
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
         device_ids = list(devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
         if self._devices_digest(device_ids) != wizard.get("devices_digest"):
+            self._release_wizard(wizard)
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
             self.message_user(
                 request,
@@ -783,6 +805,7 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         try:
             batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
         except ObjectDoesNotExist as error:
+            self._release_wizard(wizard)
             logger.warning(
                 "Failed to execute mass command wizard"
                 " (organization_id=%s, group_id=%s, location_id=%s): %s",
@@ -794,6 +817,7 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
             return self._restart(request)
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
+            self._release_wizard(wizard)
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
             self.message_user(request, error.messages[0], messages.ERROR)
             return redirect(
@@ -842,11 +866,7 @@ def get_object(self, request, object_id, from_field=None):
 
     def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
         qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related("device")
-        if not request.user.is_superuser:
-            qs = qs.filter(
-                device__organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
-            )
-        return qs
+        return BatchCommand.scope_commands(qs, request.user)
 
     def organization_display(self, obj):
         if obj.organization:
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 0d4c1bb78..874c991bc 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -171,19 +171,19 @@ def register_menu_groups(self):
             position=35,
             config={
                 "label": _("Network Operations"),
-                "icon": "ow-build",
+                "icon": "ow-network-operations",
                 "items": {
                     1: {
-                        "label": _("Mass command admin"),
+                        "label": _("Run Mass command"),
                         "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
-                        "name": "changelist",
-                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                        "name": "execute",
+                        "icon": "ow-run-mass-command",
                     },
                     2: {
-                        "label": _("Mass command execute"),
+                        "label": _("Mass commands"),
                         "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
-                        "name": "execute",
-                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                        "name": "changelist",
+                        "icon": "ow-mass-commands",
                     },
                 },
             },
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index dfc01bbff..53b3bf6be 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -910,6 +910,18 @@ def filter_skipped_items(self, filters):
             device_ids = {str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True)}
         return self.get_skipped_items(query=filters["q"], device_ids=device_ids)
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def scope_commands(queryset, user):
+        """Limits the commands to the devices the user is allowed to see.
+
+        A device can be moved to another organization after its command was
+        created, so belonging to the mass command is not enough: the rows of
+        such a device are hidden from everyone but a superuser.
+        """
+        if user.is_superuser:
+            return queryset
+        return queryset.filter(device__organization_id__in=user.organizations_managed)
+
     def filter_commands(self, queryset, filters):
         status = filters["status"]
         if status == "skipped":
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index cf9f8069e..e241a0de2 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -43,7 +43,19 @@ def send_update(self, event):
         if not self._has_access():
             self.close()
             return
-        self.send(json.dumps(event["data"]))
+        data = dict(event["data"])
+        # the device of a command can be moved to another organization after
+        # the command was created, so a row is forwarded only to the users
+        # which are allowed to see its device
+        organization_id = data.pop("device_organization", None)
+        user = self.scope["user"]
+        if (
+            organization_id
+            and not user.is_superuser
+            and not user.is_manager(organization_id)
+        ):
+            return
+        self.send(json.dumps(data))
 
     def is_user_authorized(self):
         user = self.scope["user"]
@@ -106,7 +118,10 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None, filters=None):
         batch_status["skipped_count"] = batch.skipped_count
         batch_status["skipped_preview"] = batch.get_skipped_preview()
         commands_qs = batch.filter_commands(
-            batch.batch_commands.select_related("device"), filters
+            BatchCommand.scope_commands(
+                batch.batch_commands.select_related("device"), self.scope["user"]
+            ),
+            filters,
         )
         commands_count = commands_qs.count()
         skipped_items = []
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
index 193c17eb5..13c1a4938 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/handlers.py
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@ def command_save_handler(sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data = dict(serialized_data)
         batch_data.pop("input", None)
         batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
+        batch_data["device_organization"] = str(instance.device.organization_id)
         batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
         batch_data["modified_display"] = format_localized_datetime(instance.modified)
         batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index e85d77056..f6812fc82 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@
 
 User = get_user_model()
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+Device = load_model("config", "Device")
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 OrganizationUser = load_model("openwisp_users", "OrganizationUser")
 
@@ -388,6 +389,61 @@ async def test_batch_command_consumer_invalid_messages(self, admin_user):
             assert logger.warning.call_count == 7
         await communicator.disconnect()
 
+    @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_device_transferred_to_another_org(
+        self, mocked_connect, admin_user
+    ):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        org2 = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_org)(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+                output="secret output",
+            )
+        # the device is moved to another organization after its command
+        await database_sync_to_async(
+            Device.objects.filter(pk=device_conn.device_id).update
+        )(organization=org2, name="moved-to-org2")
+        manager = await self._create_staff(
+            "transfer-manager", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand"]
+        )
+
+        manager_socket, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is True
+        await manager_socket.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1})
+        state = await manager_socket.receive_json_from()
+        assert state["commands"] == []
+        assert state["total_rows"] == 0
+
+        admin_socket, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await admin_socket.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1})
+        state = await admin_socket.receive_json_from()
+        assert [row["device"] for row in state["commands"]] == [str(command.device_id)]
+        assert state["total_rows"] == 1
+
+        # the task reloads the command, so its device is read after the transfer
+        command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.get)(pk=command.pk)
+        command.status = "failed"
+        await database_sync_to_async(command.save)()
+        update = await admin_socket.receive_json_from()
+        assert update["type"] == "command_update"
+        assert update["status"] == "failed"
+        assert "device_organization" not in update
+        received = []
+        while not await manager_socket.receive_nothing():
+            received.append(await manager_socket.receive_json_from())
+        assert [row for row in received if row.get("type") == "command_update"] == []
+        await manager_socket.disconnect()
+        await admin_socket.disconnect()
+
     @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
     async def test_batch_command_consumer_updates(self, mocked_connect, admin_user):
         async def drain(communicator):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index f8c5beaae..c9b0061a0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -4,9 +4,11 @@
 
 from django.contrib import admin
 from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
+from django.contrib.messages.storage.fallback import FallbackStorage
+from django.contrib.sessions.backends.cache import SessionStore
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
 from django.db import connection as db_connection
-from django.test import TestCase, override_settings
+from django.test import RequestFactory, TestCase, override_settings
 from django.test.utils import CaptureQueriesContext
 from django.urls import reverse
 from swapper import load_model
@@ -798,6 +800,34 @@ def test_wizard_survives_a_second_tab(self):
             reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=(batch.pk,)),
         )
 
+    def test_wizard_overlapping_execute_requests(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+        self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        session_key = self.client.session.session_key
+
+        def build_request():
+            request = RequestFactory().post(
+                self.confirm_url, {"token": wizard["token"], "excluded": ""}
+            )
+            request.user = self._get_admin()
+            request.session = SessionStore(session_key=session_key)
+            # reading the wizard caches the session in the request, which is
+            # what makes both requests see it before either of them responds
+            assert request.session.get(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key)
+            setattr(request, "_messages", FallbackStorage(request))
+            return request
+
+        first, second = build_request(), build_request()
+        model_admin._execute_batch_command(first)
+        first.session.save()
+        model_admin._execute_batch_command(second)
+        second.session.save()
+        self.assertEqual(BatchCommand.objects.count(), 1)
+
     def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)]
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 4818f290d..9d37f075f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1187,7 +1187,7 @@ def filter_by_autocomplete(param_name, option):
 
         with self.subTest("the wizard is reachable from the menu and runs"):
             self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
-            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command execute")
+            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Run Mass command")
             self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
 
             self._fill_wizard(
@@ -1220,7 +1220,7 @@ def filter_by_autocomplete(param_name, option):
 
         with self.subTest("the changelist is reachable and searchable"):
             self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
-            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command admin")
+            open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass commands")
             self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
             self.assertEqual(
                 self._changelist_labels(),

From 3b53fe5299ece710d5de49608ec6e9324f31fc98 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Gagan Deep <pandafy.dev@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 17 Sep 2026 15:39:08 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 25/27] [ci] Removed feature/1345-mass-command-admin-workflow
 branch from PR flow

---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml | 2 --
 1 file changed, 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 591ae3217..c63f35be1 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -12,8 +12,6 @@ on:
       - "1.1"
       - "1.2"
       - "gsoc26-*"
-      # Todo: Remove this after the PR is merged
-      - "feature/1345-mass-command-admin-workflow"
 
 jobs:
   build:

From 804bb9333edf6751b5b34e23993f9178824e90c1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Gagan Deep <pandafy.dev@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 17 Sep 2026 19:44:30 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 26/27] [chores] Removed installation of openwisp-utils in CI

---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml | 2 --
 1 file changed, 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index c63f35be1..51ee28407 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -68,8 +68,6 @@ jobs:
           pip install -U -r requirements-test.txt
           pip install -U -e .
           pip install ${{ matrix.django-version }}
-          # TODO: remove once https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-utils/pull/767
-          # is merged, the icons of the mass command menu entries are defined there
           pip install --no-deps -U \
             https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-utils/archive/refs/heads/feature/mass-command-icons.tar.gz
 

From 6082eef59356b6d0fa0a0d389df7c11210b49e09 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Gagan Deep <pandafy.dev@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 17 Sep 2026 19:46:03 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 27/27] [chores] Removed installation of openwisp-utils in CI

---
 .github/workflows/ci.yml | 2 --
 1 file changed, 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 51ee28407..986237cc8 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -68,8 +68,6 @@ jobs:
           pip install -U -r requirements-test.txt
           pip install -U -e .
           pip install ${{ matrix.django-version }}
-          pip install --no-deps -U \
-            https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-utils/archive/refs/heads/feature/mass-command-icons.tar.gz
 
       - name: Start redis
         if: ${{ !cancelled() && steps.deps.conclusion == 'success' }}